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International (Bbxxtutxim ^txm 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D. 



Volume VI. 



INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 

Edited by W. T. Harris. 



It is proposed to publish, under the above title, a library for teachers 
and school managers, and text-books for normal classes. The aim will 
be to provide works of a useful practical character in the broadest sense. 

The following conspectus will show the ground to be covered by the 
series : 

I. — History Of Education. (a.) Original systems as ex- 
pounded by their founders, (b.) Critical histories which set forth the 
customs of the past and point out their advantages and defects, explain- 
ing the grounds of their adoption, and also of their final disuse. 

II. — Educational Criticism, (a.) The noteworthy arraign- 
ments which educational reformers have put forth against existing sys- 
tems : these compose the classics of pedagogy, (b.) The critical histories 
above mentioned. 

III.— Systematic Treatises on the Theory of Edu- 
cation, (a.) Works written from the historical standpoint; these, 
for the most part, show a tendency to justify the traditional course of 
study and to defend the prevailing methods of instruction, (b.) Works 
written from critical standpoints, and to a greater or less degree revolu- 
tionary in their tendency. 

IV. — The Art of Education, (a.) Works on instruction 
and discipline, and the practical details of the school-room, (b.) Works 
on the organization and supervision of schools. 

Practical insight into the educational methods in vogue can not be 
attained without a knowledge of the process by which they have come to 
be established. For this reason it is proposed to give special prominence 
to the history of the systems that have prevailed. 

Again, since history is incompetent to furnish the ideal of the future, 
it is necessary to devote large space to works of educational criticism. 
Criticism is the purifying process by which ideals are rendered clear and 
potent, so that progress becomes possible. 



History and criticism combined make possible a theory of the whole. 
For, with an ideal toward which the entire movement tends, and an ac- 
count of the phases that have appeared in time, the connected develop- 
ment of the whole can be shown, and all united into one system. 

Lastly, after the science, comes the practice. The art of education is 
treated in special works devoted to the devices and technical details use- 
ful in the school-room. 

It is believed that the teacher does not need authority so much as in- 
sight in matters of education. When he understands the theory of edu- 
cation and the history of its growth, and has matured his own point 
of view by careful study of the critical literature of education, then he is 
competent to select or invent such practical devices as are best adapted 
to his own wants. 

The series will contain works from European as well as American 
authors, and will be under the editorship of W. T. Harris, A. M., LL. D. 
The price for the volumes of the series will be $1.50 for the larger 
volumes, 75 cents for the smaller ones. 

Vol. I. The Philosophy of Education. By Johann Karl 
Friedrich Rosenkranz. 

Vol. II. A History of Education. By Pi of. F. V. N. Painter, 
of Roanoke, Virginia. 

Vol. III. The Rise and Early Constitution of Univer- 
sities. With a Survey of Mediasval Education. By S. S. Laurie, 
LL. D., Professor of the Institutes and History of Education in the 
University of Edinburgh. 

Vol. IV. The Ventilation and Warming of School 
Building's. By Gilbert B. Morrison, Teacher of Physics and 
Chemistry in Kansas City High-School. 

Vol. V. The Education Of Man. By Friedrich Froebel. 
Translated from the German and annotated by W. N. Ilailmann, 
Superintendent of Public Schools at La Porte, Indiana. 

Vol. VI. Elementary Psychology and Education. By 

Joseph Baldwin, Principal of the Sam Houston State Normal 
School, Huntsville, Texas. 



INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 

ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY 
AND EDUCATION 



A TEXT-BOOK FOR HIGH SCHOOLS, 

NORMAL SCHOOLS, NORMAL INSTITUTES, AND READING CIRCLES, 

AND A MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 



/ 
,/BY 

JOSEPH BALDWIN 



PRINCIPAL OF THE SAM HOUSTON STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, HUNTSVILLE, TEXAS \ 
AUTHOR OF "ART OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 1 ' 



Vs 




NEW YORK 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 

1887 



LB/051 



Copyright, 1887, 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 



DEDICATED 

TO THE 
GEEAT BEOTHEEHOOD OF TEACHEES. 





' Elementary 


I. 
II. 




Psychology 




AND 

Education. < 


III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 




Volume I. 




(Volume VI., 


f" 


Int. Ed. Ser.) 


a 
< 

pq 
1 




' I. 


CO* 

o 

Ci3 
O 
O 


The Art of 


II. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII, 


^ J 


School 
Management. 


Ph 


Volume II. 


Eh 
H 


Applied 


VIII, 

IX.- 

X, 

L- 




Psychology 


II, 




and 






Teaching. ■< 


III, 




Volume III. 


IV, 




(In prepara- 


V, 




tion.) 


VI, 



-Attention, Instinct, Sensation. 
-The Perceptive Powers. 
-The Representative Powers. 
-The Thonght-Powers. 
-The Emotions. 
-The Will-Powers. 



-Edueatiunal Instrumentalities. 
-School Organization. 
-School Government. 
-Courses of Study and Programmes. 
-Study and Teaching. 
-Class Management. 
-Examinations, Records, and Gradua- 
tion. 
-Professional Education. 
-System and Progress in Education. 
-Graded Schools. 



-Education of the Perceptive Powers. 
-Education of the Representative Pow- 
ers. 
-Education of the Thought-Powers. 
-Education of the Emotions. 
-Education of the Will-Powers. 
-Art of Teaching. 



EDITOR'S PEEFACE. 



It is often said that the teacher needs to know psy- 
chology because it is his business to educate the mind. 
" He ought to understand the nature of the being that 
he is trying to unfold and perfect." 

This position seems so obvious that all assent to it, 
and yet it must be admitted that teachers, as a class, are 
not specially devoted to the study of psychology. It 
is true, however, that they are constantly occupied 
with a critical observation of the mind in a few of its 
aspects ; for this is necessary in order to manage a 
school successfully. The teacher must observe the 
pupil's grasp of the topic of his lesson. He must in- 
terpret the pupil's conduct by such knowledge as he 
can attain of his disposition and the spirit of his inten- 
tions. He must assign lessons of a length suited to the 
mental capacities which he knows his pupils to possess ; 
he must grade them in classes according to his knowl- 
edge of those capacities. He must arrange a course of 
study in accordance with the laws of mental development. 

If the teacher knows nothing of psychology as a 
science he must copy in detail the methods of others, 
and rely on his general knowledge of human nature 



viii EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

derived from experience. Like all uneducated work- 
men he may succeed, after a sort, by following tradi- 
tion, unaided by science ; but he will not develop be- 
yond a narrow degree of perfection in details. He will 
have no insight into the general relations of his work. 
He can not safely deviate from routine, nor venture to 
criticise his own work or the work of others. If he has 
learned good models he may pass for a good teacher ; if 
he has learned bad ones he is unable to perceive their 
defects. Possessing no scientific knowledge of the 
mind, he can not lift himself above the details of his art 
to the principles which govern them, and become him- 
self an original source of directive energy. 

Some knowledge of the mind every successful 
teacher must have, although in so many cases it is 
unsystematic and consequently unscientific. Ordinary 
experience differs from science through its lack of com- 
pleteness and consistency. It is fragmentary and dis- 
connected. Science compensates the inequalities of 
individual experience by re-enforcing it with the aggre- 
gate of all other experience. 

Psychology aims to inventory the facts of mind and 
to arrange them systematically, so that each fact may 
help to explain all other facts, and in its turn be ex- 
plained by all. 

It is confessed that psychology has hitherto borne 
the reputation of being the dryest and least interesting 
of all the sciences. This is partly due to the circum- 
stance that an inventory of facts of consciousness con- 
tains only what is already familiar to us in the frag- 
mentary form of experience. It seems a waste of time 
to go over and collect with so much painstaking what 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. i x 

is already known. Other sciences collect fresh and in- 
teresting facts. Psychology by introspection seems to 
the beginner to be a sterile occupation, dealing with 
what is trite and stale. But this is not found to be so 
by the adept. 

Introspection begins with this dull process of in- 
ventorying the already familiar facts of mind, but it 
forthwith proceeds to the second and higher process of 
reflecting on the general form of our mental processes. 
It then begins to enter a field of generalization entirely 
unknown to ordinary consciousness and full of astonish- 
ing results. By reflecting on the forms of mental ac- 
tivity we come, for the first time, to see the real nature 
of mind. We begin to discern those most important 
of all fruits of human knowledge — the truths that sit 
supreme as directive powers on the throne of life — the 
truths of God, Freedom, and Immortality. 

But we are met here by an objection. We are re- 
minded that there are two hostile schools of psychology. 
There is one founded upon physiology which attempts 
to explain mind as a function of the body. It con- 
demns introspection, and teaches that the soul has no 
subsistence apart from the body. All individuality is 
corporeal. The other school, founded on introspection, 
contends that true individuality is not corporeal by any 
possibility. The corporeal is moved by external forces, 
and is divisible, changeable, and perishable, while self- 
active energy which is the substance of mind is incor- 
poreal and the owner of all individuality. It denies, 
moreover, that any really psychical facts may be discov- 
ered by external observation — by taste, smell, touch, 
hearing, or seeing. 



x EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

Here we must take notice of the broad distinction 
that exists between external and internal observation. 
There are two distinct and strongly-marked attitudes of 
mind. The first is directed outward to the facts in 
space, and may be called objective perception or sense- 
perception. Its characteristic is found in the circum- 
stance that it always sees things as related to environ- 
ments : To it all things are dependent and relative. 

The other attitude of mind is directed within, and 
beholds the self-activities of the mind itself. Self-ac- 
tivity is essentially different from relative and depend- 
ent being, because it does not receive its determinations 
from its environment, but originates them itself, in the 
form of feelings, volitions, and thoughts. All objects 
of introspection belong to one of these three classes, 
and every possible feeling, idea, or volition, is a deter- 
mination of an activity which is, so to speak, polarized 
into subject and object. Each feeling, idea, or volition, 
is the product of an energy which is both subject and 
object. It is said to be self-determined. While exter- 
nal observation sees its object as separated into thing 
and environment, or effect and cause, internal observa- 
tion sees its object as a unity containing both effect 
and cause in one. It is what Spinoza called causa sui. 
This is true individuality — called by Aristotle " entele- 
chy," and by Leibnitz the " Monad." 

Be this as it may, all must concede that no form of 
external experience applies or can apply to internal ex- 
perience ; our apparatus for observing material objects 
can not perceive feelings or thoughts. This being so, 
it is evident that physiological psychology can make no 
progress whatever without introspection. It is limited 



EDITOR'S PEEFACE. x i 

to noting the relation of concomitance and succession 
between two orders of observation — the objects of the 
one being movements and changes of organic matter, 
and the objects of the other being feelings, ideas, and 
volitions. The progress of this science will be marked 
by a continually approximating accuracy in locating and 
defining physiological functions. 

There has been recognized from the first an intercon- 
nection between mind and the body. Decapitation has 
always been recognized as a means of disconnecting the 
mind from the body. Alcohol, tobacco, coffee, opium, 
and many other drugs have been used since prehistoric 
times for their supposed mental effects — effects nega- 
tive rather than positive, as they dull the action of the 
nerves of sensation, or diminish the mental control over 
the nerves of motion, and thereby allay the pain of weari- 
ness, or the worry that arises from a vivid consciousness 
of the body and the outer world. Physiology is engaged 
in determining more precisely the location of these ef- 
fects and their extent. Although it will not discover 
how the corporeal becomes mental, or how the external 
becomes internal, for the reason that objective experience 
can never perceive thoughts and feelings ; yet it will 
yield rich results in all departments wherein the mind 
uses the body as an instrument to gain knowledge, or to 
execute its volitions. Insanity, idiocy, the use and abuse 
of the five organs of sense, all that relates to the proper 
care of the body; the influence of age, sex, climate, 
race ; the phenomena of sleep, dreams, somnambulism, 
catalepsy ; whatever relates to these and the like im- 
portant topics, will receive elucidation. The negative 
conditions of mental unfolding will be defined. .But 



xii EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

that which is an original energy can not be explained 
by its environment, because it is independent. Nor is 
it strictly speaking correlated to the body, although it 
uses it in sense-perception and in volition as an instru- 
ment of communication with the outer world. 

This work of Professor Baldwin is intended by its 
author expressly for elementary classes. It seeks to 
aid them, by many happy devices, in making an inven- 
tory of the mental processes and in arranging the items 
methodically. It aims to familiarize those commencing 
the study with the technical nomenclature and useful 
discriminations used by writers of our day in treating 
this theme. Above all, it expects to teach the pupil 
how to attain the second order of observation ; how to 
pass from the attitude of mind, which observes external 
things, to that attitude of mind which observes internal 
activities. To make this transition is to acquire a most 
important power of thought. To think things and en- 
vironments is to think the phenomenal, the transient, 
and variable; to think self-activity is to think the 
noumenal, the true individuality, and what is divine in 
human nature. 

Although the author has purposely omitted from this 
work the subtle and profound discussions which arise in 
advanced psychology, he has done it in the interest of 
the beginners for whom the book is made. The author 
is well assured that, once drawn into the study of mind 
and well disciplined in the habit of internal observation, 
it is only a matter of time with the pupil when he shall 
arrive at all the precious arcana of psychology. 

^Y. T. Harris. 

Concord, August, 1887. 



ATJTHOK'S PEEFACE. 



Subject-lessons, or mind-lessons, are as necessary 
as object-lessons. Object-lessons give a direct knowl- 
edge of the matter-world, while subject-lessons give a 
direct knowledge of the mind-world. A knowledge of 
self is more important than a knowledge of things. 

Youth is the time for subject-lessons. A youth 
who can learn algebra and physiology and rhetoric is 
ready for Elementary Psychology. The third year of 
the high-school course and the second year of the nor- 
mal-school course are considered pre-eminently fitting 
periods for subject-lessons. 

A subject-lesson text-book is needed. Our literature 
is rich in psychologies adapted to colleges and to senior 
classes in our normal schools, but is destitute of a text- 
book suitable for our high- schools and for the lower 
classes in onr normal schools. The want of such a text- 
book is widely felt. The author has given the best 
years of his life to the effort to prepare such a text- 
book, and thus meet this want. Each lesson here sub- 
mitted has been given scores of times to large classes, 
with highly satisfactory results. While it is true that 
subject-lessons, like object-lessons, must be largely oral, 
yet a suitable text-book is deemed indispensable. 

An .Elementary Psychology deals with the plain 



x iv AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

facts of mind. The advanced student wishes to know 
what Locke arid Keid thought, what Kant and Hamil- 
ton taught, and what McCosh and Wundt said ; but the 
discussion of these conflicting views, which constitutes 
so large a part of our text-books on psychology, only 
confuses and discourages beginners. An incomparably 
better plan, it is thought, is to lead the learner to look 
into his own mind, to analyze his own mental acts, to 
discover for himself the capabilities of the soul. The 
subject-lessons are thus made the counterpart of object- 
lessons. The author believes that the time has come 
when we can make our text-books for beginners in men- 
tal science just as we make our elementary arithmetics 
and chemistries, without reference to the history of the 
science or the peculiar views of authors. 

A simple and exhaustive nomenclature is a desidera- 
tum in mental science. The time has come, it is be- 
lieved, to reject the pedantic and misleading terms of a 
crude and antiquated psychology. Fortunately, few 
unfamiliar terms are now necessary. Every one has 
some knowledge of mind. However illiterate, each man 
has his own crude psychology. So far as correct, the 
language of the people is best. By using the language 
of literature and life, Sully, Hopkins, Porter, McCosh, 
and others have done much to popularize mental sci- 
ence. It seems fitting in an elementary work to still 
further popularize the subject. 

The constant effort has been to present each point 
with sunlight clearness. Short sentences, in plain 
Anglo-Saxon, is the rule. Object-lessons, bold type, out- 
lines, study-hints, examples to work out, original analy- 
ses, original definitions, original applications, and helpful 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xv 

illustrations are called into constant requisition. Men- 
tal science, it is claimed, may be as fully illustrated as 
physical science. The student is taught to observe and 
analyze the operations of his own mind ; to look within 
and describe what he sees going on. Thus he becomes 
an observer, an original investigator. He brings to the 
study of the soul the same methods that Agassiz applied 
with such wonderful effect to the study of the natural 
sciences. When this is done the student is interested, 
and the study of Psychology becomes as easy and fas- 
cinating as that of Botany or Zoology. 

Leading the learner to build on his oion experience 
is the fundamental idea in this work. He is led to ob- 
serve the workings of his own mind, to analyze his own 
mental acts, and to compare the recorded or observed 
mental acts of others with his own. Thus he is enabled 
to make definitions, to discover laws, and to apply prin- 
ciples. 

The facts of mind are our common heritage. The 
ways of presenting these facts are individual. It gives 
the author special pleasure to acknowledge his indebt- 
edness to the many excellent works on mental science 
and education. Wherever possible, acknowledgment is 
made in the body of the work; but, in numerous cases, 
this has been impracticable. For a third of a century 
the matter of the volume has been presented in lectures 
to normal classes and normal institutes. The endeavor 
to completely adapt the matter and the method to the 
wants of beginners, has led to many changes in the lan- 
guage, so that authors, even in direct quotations, must 
not be held strictly responsible for the form in which 
their thoughts here appear. 



Xvi AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

Applied Psychology and teaching. The original 
purpose was to combine Elementary and Applied Psy- 
chology, but it is now thought best to present Applied 
Psychology in a separate volume. Two reasons led to 
this change : 1. The combined volume would have 
been inconveniently large. Brief outlines are excellent 
for reviews, but are useless for beginners. 2. Many 
students will wish to study Elementary Psychology who 
will not care to study Applied Psychology. Then, in 
normal schools, Elementary Psychology is studied 
during the second year, while Applied Psychology is 
not taken up before the third or fourth years. Besides, 
it became evident that the latter subject could be 
treated far more satisfactorily in a separate volume. 

The best, rather than the original, has been the aim. 
Each true workman builds on the achievements of the 
race, and merely adds his mite. A science is the prod- 
uct of innumerable minds. The plan of these lessons, 
however, may be claimed as in some degree original ; in 
fact, a new departure, both in plan and execution, was 
found to be a necessity in order to adapt psychology 
to the wants of beginners. 

Subject-lessons prepare the student for advanced 
ivork. As object-lessons are needful to prepare the 
learner to study natural science, so subject-lessons are 
necessary to prepare the student to understand advanced 
psychologies, and to read with profit advanced educa- 
tional works. As an introductory work, this volume is 
submitted. The author earnestly hopes that these les- 
sons will prove a real help to many teachers, and an in- 
spiration to many young people. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

IS TR OD UCTOR Y LESSONS. 



CIIAPTEE 



I. — Attention 4 

II. — Instinct 15 

III. — Important Terms examined .... 25 

IV. — The Sensorium 35 

V. — Sensation 44 

PART II. 

THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 

VI. — Sense-Perception, or Sense-Intuition . . 59 

VII. — Conscious Perception, or Self-Consciousness . 71 

VIII. — Noumenal Perception, or Noumenal Intuition 85 

IX. — Perceptive Knowing — General View . . 100 

PART III. 

THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 

X.— Memory 108 

XI.— Phantasy 124 

XII. — Imagination 133 

XIII. — Representation— General View . . . 146 



XVU1 



CONTENTS. 



PART IV. 

THE THOUGHT POWERS. 

CHAPTER 

XIV. — Conception 

XV. — Judgment 

XVI.— Reason 

XVII. — Thought-Knowing — General View 



PAOE 

155 
171 
180 
195 



PART V. 

THE FEELINGS. 



XVIII.— The Instincts 15,206 

XIX. — The Physical Feelings— The Appetites . . 44, 207 

XX. — The Emotions — Egoistic Emotions . . . 215 

XXI. — The Emotions — Altruistic Emotions . . 222 

XXII. — The Emotions— Truth Emotions . . . 231 

XXIII. — The Emotions — ^Esthetic Emotions . . . 234 

XXIV. — The Emotions — Ethical Emotions . . . 240 

XXV. — The Emotions — General View .... 252 



PART VI. 

THE WILL-POWERS. 

XXVI. — Attention 

XXVIL— Action 

XXVIII.— Choice 

XXIX. — The Will-Powers — General View 



204 
266 
273 

285 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE PEIVATE STUDENT. 



Many young people, teachers of common schools and others, 
greatly desire to study the mind, but are compelled to struggle 
upward without the aid of the living teacher. Each line of this 
work was written in view of helping this large and deserving 
class. These hints, though given directly to teachers, apply 
equally to others. 

1. Look within. What object-lessons are to children, sub- 
ject-lessons are to you. Observe the workings of your own 
mind, and verify each statement by your own experience. 

2. Study the child. You have the key, for the child knows, 
feels, and wills, just as you do. Put yourself in its place. Study 
intently child-effort. These subject-object lessons will be in- 
valuable to you as well as to your pupils. 

3. Hasten leisurely. You can well afford to devote a week 
to each chapter. Gradually the wonders of the soul-world will 
open to you. Select some interested friend with whom you can 
talk the lesson over. 

4. WorTc out your own definitions and illustrations. This is 
essential. Build on your own experience. Work out everything 
for yourself, just as you do in arithmetic and algebra. 

5. Write the letters. Select an appreciative friend who will 
respond. Try to make each subject clear to this friend. Above 
all, tell just how the subject looks to you. Writing these letters 
will greatly benefit you. 

6. You will worlc in the light. You are painfully aware 
that you are now liable to blunder at every step because you are 
ignorant of child-mind and of the laws of child-growth. As you 
advance, all will become clear, and you will begin to feel the 
inspiration of the artist. To rightly direct the development of 
an immortal soul is the grandest of all work. 



TEACHING ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY. 

The experienced teacher needs no suggestions, hut a page 
from the book of experience may assist one who teaches psychol- 
ogy for the first time : 

1. Oral lessons. I have found it necessary to give one or 
more oral lessons on each subject to prepare the student to study 
the lesson in the book. Then, the text needs to be supplemented 
by much oral work. Illustrate from students' daily work. 

2. Clearness. It is marvelous how crude and confused are 
the psychological and educational notions of most of the persons 
we meet. But our stupid methods of teaching this subject are 
largely to blame. Here and everywhere we must build on per- 
sonal experience, and manage to have the student grasp fully the 
elementary facts of mind. The suggestions to the private student 
may benefit all students. 

3. Reviews. Each lesson should in some way involve all the 
previous lessons. No other branch requires such constant reitera- 
tion and review. All possible combinations of the facts of mind 
must be woven into the warp and woof of the learner's mental 
economy. 

4. Troublesome questions. Psychology touches and to some 
extent underlies all other departments of knowledge, Questions 
involving philosophy and theology and sociology can not be ig- 
nored. I have found it best to frankly answer these questions 
as best I could, avoiding alike all semblance of either dogmatism 
or mysticism. But no time or energy must be wasted in discuss- 
ing these questions. Young people will understand that such dis- 
cussions belong in the advanced work. 

5. Short lessons. The student enters a new field of inquiry. 
The terms, as well as the ideas, are new. Then the learner has 
to learn the new art of introspection. Usually it will be best 
to give about three pages for a lesson. The work can thus be 
completed in twenty weeks. I have not been able to secure 
satisfactory results in, a shorter period. Short book-lessons and 
long oral lessons is the true policy. 

6. Reference books. A few choice volumes are indispensable. 



PART I. 

INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 



CHAPTER L— Attention. 

II. — Instinct. 

III. — Important Terms Examined. 
IV. — The Sensorium. 

V. — Sensation. 



WAYS OF STUDYING MIND. 






V 






<P 







The true psychology gathers up from eA r ery source the estab- 
lished facts of mind. The old, or metaphysical psychology, inclined 
to ignore the body ; the new, or physiological psychology, inclines 
to ignore the soul ; the true psychology finds in the brain and nerves 
the bridge between mind and matter. The theories and metaphysi- 
cal speculations of both the old and the new psychology disappear ; 
but all the established facts of miad reappear in the true psy- 
chology. 



FIRST PART. 

INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 



MIND-STUDY AND EDUCATION. 

By this is meant becoming acquainted with our- 
selves and developing our powers. Self-knowledge is 
the most valuable. " Know thyself " is the key to wis- 
dom and success. 

Our earlier years are largely devoted to the mastery 
of the material world. The study of Nature interests 
and educates the child, but does not satisfy the youth. 
He begins to realize that the mind- world is even more 
wonderful than the matter-world. What am I ? What 
can I do ? How can I make the most of myself ? These 
questions now obtrude themselves, and must be an- 
swered. " Elementary Psychology and Education" will 
seek answers to these questions, or, rather, will try to 
lead you to find out the answers for yourself. 

In your study of physical science you began with 
physical phenomena and worked up to physical laws. 
Each step forward was based on your own experience. 
You thus gained the keys to the accumulated experi- 
ence of the race. To you physical science has become 
an open book. You can now read with delight the 
works of the great scientists. 



4 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

In your study of mental science you will begin with 
mental phenomena and work up to mental laws. Here, 
too, each step will be based on your own experience. 
You will thus gain the keys to the treasured wisdom of 
the race. Mental science will become to you an open 
book, and you will be able to commune with the great 
thinkers of all ages. 

As attention is the condition of knowledge, it is 
fitting that you should begin the study of mind with 
the examination of this capability. 



CHAPTER I. 

ATTENTION. 

The art of learning, as well as the art of teaching, 
is based on the power of attention. Few problems are 
too difficult for the student who can concentrate upon 
them all his energies. Right study and true teaching 
develop the power and the habit of complete attention. 

Analysis of Acts of Attention. — Attention ! Examine 
these crystals. You tell me that each is a cube, that 
some have beveled corners, and that the mineral is lead. 
low examine these. You turn away from the lead crys- 
tals, and fix your mind on these new forms. You tell me 
that each is a hexagon, and that the mineral is graphite. 
You find that you can direct your own efforts. You 
can place your mind on one object, can examine it for 
a time, and can turn to something else. The capability 
of self thus to direct his efforts is called Attention. 



ATTENTION. 5 

Office of Attention. — The special work of a capabil- 
ity of the mind is called its office ; as, the office of 
memory is recalling. Self-direction, or concentration, 
is the office of attention. Your analysis gives you 
three forms of attention : 

1. Self, as attention, concentrates his efforts. Ex- 
amine the word attend {ad, to ; tendo, I stretch). You 
get the idea of turning to something and fixing all 
your energies upon it. You throw your powers of 
body and mind into the work. As the burning-glass 
concentrates all the rays of the sun upon a single point, 
so you concentrate all your powers upon the matter 
in hand. 

2. Self, as attention, prolongs his efforts. The prob- 
lem can not be solved in a moment. You bend all 
your energies to its mastery ; you drive out other 
thoughts ; you refuse to be interrupted ; you hold 
yourself to the work. After hours of mighty effort, 
you exclaim, " I have found it ! " This is study. 
Dreamers do not learn. Truth opens her doors to 
those only who knock hard and long. 

3. Self, as attention, changes his efforts. Frequent 
change is a physical necessity. Great mental efforts 
exhaust the portion of the brain most used. After two 
hours devoted to mathematics, and a rest of twenty 
minutes, you turn with fresh vigor to natural science. 
Yersatility is as necessary as concentration. 

Were the mind a ship, Attention would be the captain ; were 
the mind an army, Attention would be the general ; were the mind 
a school, Attention would be the teacher. In figures such as these 
the comparison must be limited to the capability of self to concen- 
trate, prolong, and change his efforts. Attention is one species of 
self-direction. Self-direction includes much more than attention. 



6 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Characteristics of Attention. — Attention is distin- 
guished from otLer mental powers by two marked 
characteristics : 

1. Attention is the power to concentrate effort. Take 
away this power and the soul would merely drift, and 
life would be one long revery. Man would be an idle 
dreamer. Attention is our ability to concentrate our 
efforts. We thus gain mastery. 

2. Attention accompanies all mental activity. Like 
memory and consciousness, attention in some degree is 
present in all knowing and feeling and willing. It 
enters as an essential element into all effective mental 
operations. There can be no distinct thinking, no vivid 
feeling, no deliberate action, without attention. It en- 
ergizes and quickens mental effort. 

Attention denned. — You are now prepared to define 
attention : 

1. Attention is the capahility to concentrate, prolong ', 
and change effort. Mind is both self-acting and self- 
directing. Thinking is self -activity ; but I also direct 
my thoughts. Attention is clearly a power of self- 
direction. 

2. Original. Write a brief definition embodying 
your own conception of attention. The definitions 
given are suggestive. Your definition must be worked 
out and polished, then treasured in memory. 

Various Definitions. — 1. Porter : Attention is our power to 
concentrate effort. 2. Sully: Attention is the power of active 
self-direction. 3. Bascom : Attention is our capability to direct 
and handle our faculties. 4. Rosenkranz : Attention is the power 
to adjust self to the object. 5. Trumbull : Attention is the ener- 
getic application of the mind to any object. C. Schuyler : Atten- 
tion is the concentration of the thoughts upon a given phenomenon. 



ATTENTION. 7 

"Attention is self-activity. It is the will acting on 
the intellect. Attention selects one special field and 
refuses to be diverted from it. It neglects all else, and 
returns again and again to the object of special atten- 
tion. Attention isolates one object from others, and 
concentrates eifort upon it to the exclusion of all other 
objects. Isaac Newton ascribed his superiority to other 
men in intellectual power simply to his greater power 
of attention." * 

Kinds of Attention. — I give attention to the rose. 
I observe its color, its odor, and its structure. I find 
that I can direct my energies to the mastery of the 
outer world. We may call this Outer Attention. 

1. Outer attention is self attending to external things. 
Outer attention looks to the world of sense. When the 
teacher says " Attention ! " she usually means " Listen " 
or "Look." Objective attention, external attention, 
and outer attention, are synonymous and simply mean 
self attending to the external world. As the outer 
world is called the objective world, the self-direction of 
the mind to outer things is called Objective Attention. 

2. Inner attention is self attending to what is going 
on within. I concentrate my powers upon a problem, 
upon a composition, upon a desire, upon a choice. This 
is inner attention. We mean by inner attention, self 
attending to the inner world. As the inner world is 
called the subjective world, inner attention is called 
Subjective Attention. 

3. Objective and subjective attention. We fix our minds upon 
the rainbow. We observe the primary and secondary colors. This 
is objective attention. Now we study the relations of colors, the 

* Dr. W. T. Harris. 



8 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

laws of combinations, etc. We fix our minds upon our acquisitions 
and try to discover relations. Self attends to his own products and 
processes. This is subjective attention. 

Physiology of Attention. — The brain and nerves are 
the physical organism in connection with which the soul 
works. Instinctively man and brute turn the sense- 
organ toward the object, the sound, the odor. Pro- 
longed attention exhausts the physical organism. It is 
physically impossible for children to give close atten- 
tion for a long period. As the years advance, attention 
may be prolonged more and more. 

Attracted and Purposed Attention. — A loud sound, 
a brilliant object, or a strong odor excites the sensor 
organs and attracts attention. Brute attention is chiefly 
of this nature. The teacher finds it necessary to attract 
the attention of her young pupils. She finds that new 
objects, sudden changes, and striking movements arrest 
attention. But the child soon develops the power of 
purposed attention. Attracted attention is merely the 
sensuous arrest of attention. Sensor affections occasion 
attention. 

Reflex and voluntary attention. Reflex- action is destitute of 
will-power. Attention means power of self-direction. Clearly, the 
expressions, reflex attention and involuntary attention, are unmean- 
ing and misleading. 

Growth of Attention. — The idiot is incapable of self- 
direction. Because he can not attend, he can not learn. 
The attracted attention which he seems to give is not 
concentrated mental effort. Brutes can give a degree of 
attention, and hence can learn some things. The child 
begins to notice attractive objects. This is the germ of 
voluntary attention. We can not fix the period when 



ATTENTION. 



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the infant begins to attend. 
When a few weeks old, it 
recognizes its nurse. When 
a few months old, it recog- 
nizes many objects, but can 
hardly be said to attend be- 
fore the fifth or sixth month. 
The child learns slowly be- 
cause he attends feebly and 
but for a very short time. 
The boy can learn more 
rapidly, as he can attend 
more closely and for a 
longer time. The well- 
trained youth can throw his 
energies into his work for 
several hours, and hence 
. can do much more than the 
boy. The educated man can 
do vastly more than the 
youth because he can con- 
centrate his entire energies 
for many hours. At twenty, 
attention is fully active, but 
may grow more and more 
vigorous up to the meridian 
of life. 

These familiar facts in- 
dicate the slow but gradual 
growth of attention, as well 
as its relation to achieve- 
ment. 



10 ELEMENTAKY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Education of Attention.*— Teaching is the art of pro- 
moting human growth. The mother lays the founda- 
tion on which the teacher builds. She supplies her 
little Kindergarten with attractive objects. In a thous- 
and ingenious ways she manages to draw and hold the 
attention of her budding loved ones. The teacher con- 
tinues the same line of work. She will spare no effort 
to win the interested attention of her young pupils. 
Each exercise will be so conducted as to develop the 
power and the habit of attention. 

Well-directed effort in concentrating the mind upon 
the work in hand develops the power of attention. You 
try to give your entire attention for a short time daily 
..to some subject. In a few months you find that you 
can attend more closely and for a longer time. When 
you can attend completely, your power of attention is 
educated. 

Attention and Learning. — The drill will not pene- 
trate the granite unless kept to the work hour after 
hour. The mind will not penetrate the secrets of science 
unless held long and vigorously to the work in hand. 
Agassiz insisted on a radical reform in all our systems 
of education. His students came to him so deficient in 
the power of penetrating observation that they could 
not learn science until educated to observe. This great 
naturalist considered the development of attention as 
paramount in education. Dickens considered his power 
of attention the secret of all his achievements. Hard 
work fosters genius ; but only well-directed and persist- 
ent effort counts. The sun's rays burn only when con- 
centrated. Self achieves mastery only when he hurls all 

* See "Applied Psychology" ; also, Sully's "Psychology." 



ATTENTION. 11 

Ms forces upon one point. " Scatter-brained " rough- 
ly characterizes the large class of half-idiots who can not 
learn because they can not give close and continued at- 
tention. Who has sinned — these stupid pupils, or their 
more stupid teachers ? 

Attention and Retention. — Good memory means 
close and continued attention. You become intensely 
interested in your history lesson ; you bend all your 
powers to its mastery. You close your eyes and think 
it over. You fix your mind on the facts in their rela- 
tions. You in this way deeply impress the lesson upon 
your memory, and you will be able to recall it read- 
ily. When there is slight attention, as in revery or 
half-study, the slight impressions speedily fade away. 
Attending is work. Lazy persons have poor memo- 
ries because they are too indolent to give attention. 
As a rule, interested attention and good memory go 
together. 

Attention and Power.* — No element of personal 
power is greater or more potent than specialization. JSTo 
man can be so much of a man, in any one direction, 
as when he is a whole man in that direction. He who 
can concentrate his whole being, all his energies and all 
his capabilities, for the compassing of the one thing on 
which his mind is fixed for the time being, is obviously 
more potent in behalf of that object of his endeavor 
than would be possible were his energies divided, and 
were only a portion of himself given up to that for 
which he is striving. And this power of concentration 
it is, that makes the man of pre-eminent practical effi- 
ciency in any and every sphere of human endeavor — 

* Trumbull. 



12 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

material, mental, and spiritual — from the lowest plane 
to the highest. 

Educational Laws. — The great truths relating to human growth 
and development are called educational laws or principles. Thus 
early you have discovered some of these fundamental truths. Far- 
ther on these laws will be examined and applied. 

1. Self-effort educates. The soul is self-acting. Spontaneously 
we put forth effort. All development comes from self-effort. 

2. Strenuous effort, ivell directed, educates. This is the condi- 
tion of all improvement. Directed endeavor develops power. 

3. Attention energizes mental effort. It gives vividness and 
vigor. The inattentive mind drifts but does not achieve. 

4. Achievement is in the ratio of concentration. Effective effort 
is concentrated effort. The narrower the field of attention the 
greater is the penetrating power of the mind. "One thing at a 
time" ; " Concentrate all your energies" ; " Give your entire atten- 
tion " ; " Do with all your might " ; are some of the excellent rules 
deduced from this law. 

5. Pleasure sustains attention. Gentle pleasure, present and 
prospective, fixes and holds attention. Painful study repels and 
dissipates energy ; pleasurable study attracts and sustains attention. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

What do you do when you give attention ? "Write 
an analysis of an act of attention. What do you mean 
by the office of a faculty ? What is the office of the 
heart in the physical organism ? Of the memory in the 
mental economy? What single word expresses the 
office of attention ? Give the etymology of attention. 
Give two examples of concentration. Give an exam- 
ple of prolonged attention. Give two examples of 
change of effort. 

How do you distinguish attention from memory? 
Give two characteristics of attention. Give examples. 



ATTENTION. 13 

Give the author's definition of attention ; give yours ; 
give Porter's. 

Give the distinction between outer attention and 
inner attention. Illustrate. Give your reasons for using 
also the terms objective attention and subjective atten- 
tion. Give five examples of each. 

"Why should prolonged attention not be required of 
children ? Why does forced attention fail to benefit 
the pupil ? 

Why can not an idiot learn? Why can the boy 
learn more than the child ? Tell what you know 
about the growth of attention. What do you mean 
by growth ? 

What is teaching ? Describe the work of the moth- 
er and of the primary teacher. 

Why did Agassiz find it so difficult to teach science 
to his students? What do you mean by "scatter- 
brained " ? What did Dickens consider the secret of 
his success ? Is inattention the fault of the pupil or of 
the teacher? 

Why have inattentive people poor memories ? What 
do you remember best? What do you do when you 
give attention ? Why can you readily recall the tilings 
to which you give great attention ? How can you culti- 
vate your power of attention ? 

Letter.* — I venture to ask you to write a letter to 
some friend, telling what you know about attention. 
Give your own thoughts in your own way. Nothing 

* In a long experience I have secured the most satisfactory results by- 
having each pupil write a letter to some interested friend, giving his notions 
about the faculty discussed . As far as possible I have these letters read in 
class and criticised. 



14 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

will help you more. You may be called upon to read 
the letter. Send with your letter to your friend a top- 
ical outline showing your analysis of this chapter. 

Topical Analysis of Chapter I. — Attention. 

I. Acts of Attention analyzed. 

Objective Attention. Subjective Attention. 

II. Office of Attention. 

Concentration of effort. Change of effort. 

Prolongation of effort. 

III. Characteristics of Attention. 

Power of self-concentration. 

Active self-direction energizes all mental action. 

IV. Attention defined. 

Author's definition. Sundry definitions. 

Original definition. 
V. Kinds of Attention. 

Objective and Subjective. Attracted and Purposed. 

VI. Physiology of Attention. 

Physical limits of Attention. 

Vigorous health and Attention. 

Rest and Attention. 
VII. GroAvth of Attention. 

Attention in childhood. Attention in youth. 

Attention in boyhood. Attention in manhood. 

VIII. Education of Attention. 

Teaching and Attention. Attention and Retention. 

Attention and Learning. Attention and Power. 

IX. Educational Laws. 

Self-effort educates. 

Strenuous effort, well directed, educates. 

Attention energizes mental effort. 

Achievement is in the ratio of concentration. 

Pleasure sustains attention. 



INSTINCT. 15 

CHAPTER II. 

INSTINCT. 

By this is meant the capability of animals to do 
blindly the best for themselves. A mind is capable 
of knowing, feeling, and willing. What a mind can 
do is called a mental power. The simplest of the men- 
tal powers are the guiding impulses, called instincts. It 
is deemed best to begin the study of mental phenomena 
with the lowest and least complex manifestation of mind. 

Instinctive Acts analyzed. — We are wonderfully fa- 
miliar with brute-life. The cat, the dog, the bird, and 
the horse are our intimate companions. From infancy 
to age, brute-life interests us. Even Solomon and Aris- 
totle intently studied animal life. We see brutes doing 
blindly what man, with ages of experience, can scarcely 
do. The bee builds a perfect cell without having stud- 
ied mathematics, and compounds delicious honey with- 
out having studied chemistry. Birds migrate thousands 
of miles by land and sea without chart or compass. 
The animal, without knowing why, does what is best 
for itself. The blind feelings which lead animals to 
act for their best interests are called instincts. Observe 
the sitting hen : at regular intervals she turns her eggs. 
Why % It took a thousand years for man to answer 
this question. The hen, without knowing why, does 
the right thing. The blind impulse which moves the 
hen to thus act is termed instinct. 

Office of Instinct. — Each organ of the body and each 
capability of the mind has a specific purpose, called its 



16 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

office. The office of the stomach is digestion. The 
office of attention is self -direction. The office of in- 
stinct is to move and guide animals to wise ends, where 
it is impossible that intellect should act. 

1. Instincts tend to the physical well-being of the 
individual. Spontaneously the young animal seeks its 
proper food. Without knowing why, squirrels and bees 
lay up stores for the future. Without a knowledge of 
geography or climate, birds and beasts migrate with the 
season. Inborn feelings move and guide the animal to 
its own good. 

2. Instincts tend to the well-being of the race. The 
salmon leaves the sea and ascends the river to spawn 
safely in shallow water. The bird conceals her nest. 
Even lions and eagles mate. Strong impulses move 
animals to act so as to preserve the race. These blind 
impulses are termed instincts. 

3. Instincts move brutes to fulfill the purposes of 
their creation. Its instincts move the silk-worm to spin 
its cocoon. The bee is moved to sip sweets from every 
flower. Its instincts move the coral to build islands. 
Marvelous chapter, this, in the book of Nature ! 

Characteristics of Instinct. — The peculiarities that 
distinguish one endowment from others are called its 
characteristics. How may we know instinct ? 

1. Instincts are blind but guiding impulses. Bees 
and ants organize republics, build cities, and lay up 
stores. Without knowing the principles of government 
or architecture or political economy, they wisely adapt 
means to ends. Blind feelings, implanted by Infinite 
Wisdom, guide as well as move them. Instincts are the 
only guiding impulses. 



IXSTINCT. 17 

2. Instinct is a perfect guide. An instinct is in- 
nate and perfect from the first. Intellect hesitates and 
blunders ; instinct advances to its end with mechanical 
certainty. Intellect improves ; instinct is practically 
stationary. 

3. Instinct is conscious activity. The bird is aware 
of its nest-building impulses. However dim in the 
lower orders of animals, consciousness may be safely 
inferred wherever instinct is manifested. Instincts, 
therefore, are now classed as mental ; wherever we find 
instinct we find mind. The plant has life, but not 
mind. The brute has life and mind, but not self-con- 
scious personality. 

4. Instinct is limited to physical activity. Instincts 
are mental impulses leading to physical acts and phys- 
ical ends. The mother-impulse in the bird to care for 
her young is mental ; the act of securing food and feed- 
ing her birdlings is physical. All instincts seem con- 
nected with the perpetuation of organic life. 

To speak of moral instincts or religious instincts is clearly in- 
correct. Intellect guides beings capable of moral acts. 

Instinct defined. — Instinct is feeling. Like all feel- 
ings, instinct is blind; but, unlike all other feelings, 
instinct guides. Instincts are blind feelings implanted 
by Infinite Wisdom to move and guide animals where 
intellect can not act. 

1. Instinct is blind impulse guiding to wise ends. 
Instincts are blind impulses to adapt means to ends 
without knowing why. Without either knowledge or 
experience, the young bee constructs a perfect cell. In- 
stincts are blind feelings moving and guiding to wise 
ends. 



18 ELEUENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. Original. Write a definition containing jour 
view of instinct. What does instinct mean to you % 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. White : Instincts are impulses which 
prompt and direct appropriate action in the absence of intelligence. 
2. Romanes : Instincts are adaptive impulses. 3. Hopkins : Instinct 
is regulative impulse. 4. Hamilton: Instinct is a blind tendency 
to intelligent ends. 5. Von Hartmann : An instinctive act is one 
conformed to an end of which the actor is not conscious. 

Reflex Action and Instinct. — The clock marks time, 
but its organism and action are wholly mechanical. The 
sensitive-plant responds to the touch, but its organism 
and action are wholly vegetable. The animal perspires 
and respires, but the organism and action are wholly 
vital. The order of the various forces is: mechan- 
ical forces, chemical forces, vital forces. Reflex action 
is a vital force. Like the sensitive-plant, the lower 
nerve-centers respond to stimuli and cause motion. 
Where the stimuli lie within the body, reflex action is 
called automatic action. 

1. Reflex action is unconscious action. Bound up 
in the animal are forces which regulate nutrition, cir- 
culation, respiration, and non-voluntary motion. But 
mind is wanting in such acts. These actions are in- 
trusted to ganglia and nerves and tissues which re- 
spond to stimuli. Reflex action is devoid of will-power 
and is wholly physical. Animals of the lowest orders 
are little more than reflex machines — they are nearly 
destitute of instinct as well as of intellect. 

2. Instinctive action is conscious action. Keflex 
action is the highest physical force ; instinct is the low- 
est mental energy. The action of the new-born infant 
in sucking is reflex action ; but the act of the young 



INSTINCT. 19 

animal in seeking food is instinctive action. Instinct 
moves the spider to spin her web to capture her prey ; 
but the act of spinning is reflex. Below instinct, no 
indication of mind appears. To some degree the ani- 
mal seems to be aware of its instinctive acts, but is 
utterly unconscious of its reflex acts. Here we may 
venture to draw the line between the physical and the 
mental. Reflex action and all the lower forces are 
wholly physical. Instinctive action appears to be spon- 
taneous as well as conscious action, and hence belongs 
to the realm of mind. 

Instinct and Intellect. — Instinct is blind impulse 
which directs animal action in a way beneficial to the 
individual and the race. Intellect adapts means to 
ends and guides the feelings. Brutes and men are en- 
dowed with intellect as well as with instinct. Intellect 
enables its possessor to find out and act from knowl- 
edge ; instinct moves the possessor to adapt means to 
ends without knowing why. Instinct guides the mi- 
grating bird ; intellect guides the mariner. Instinct 
guides the bee in constructing a cell ; but intellect 
guides the engineer in constructing a bridge. 

1. As intellect increases, instinct decreases. Mol- 
lusks and still lower forms of animal life exhibit in- 
stinct and even infinitesimal intellect. But they are 
little more than creatures of reflex action. In fact, 
many orders are scarcely more than automatons. The 
bee, the ant, and the spider seem most gifted with 
instinct. They also exhibit some intellect. In birds, 
beavers, dogs, and elephants we find instinct decreasing 
and intellect increasing. 

2. As instinct increases ; intellect decreases. The 



20 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



INSTINCT. 



elephant, the horse, and the dog manifest considerable 

intellect, but much less instinct than spiders, bees, 

and ants. As we go down the 

scale we find instinct increases 

just as intellect decreases. 

3. Man stands alone. Intel- 
lect vastly predominates in man ; 
instinct in brutes. The gap here 
between the lowest man and the 
highest brute is immense. There 
appear to be many missing links. 
In the accompanying dia- 
gram the relations of instinct 
and intellect are roughly indi- 
cated. 

Man was created in the rational and 
moral image of God. Physically, he is 
separated, by a great gap, from all the 
intellect. animals nearest to him ; and, even if we 

admit the doctrine, as yet unproved, of 
the derivation of one species from another, in the case of the low- 
er animals, we are unable to supply the " missing links " which 
would be required to connect man with any group of inferior ani- 
mals. Mentally, the gap between man and the brute is practically 
infinite. Those who deny this must adopt one of two alternatives. 
Either they must refuse to admit the evidence in man of any nature 
higher than that of brutes — a conclusion which common sense, as 
well as mental science, must always refuse to admit — or they must 
attempt to bridge over" the " chasm," as it has been called, which 
separates the instinctive nature of the animal from the rational and 
moral nature of man — an effort confessedly futile.* 

The Instincts. — Instinct is a simple mental energy, 
as gravity is a simple physical force. It is ever the 

* Principal Sir J. William Dawson, CM. G., LL. D., F.R.S., Presi- 
dent of the British Association. 




INSTINCT. 21 

same blind impulse moving to wise ends, and nothing 
more. But the instincts — the promptings of the in- 
stinctive energy — are numerous. These may be classed 
as strictly brute instincts, as instincts common to brute 
and man, and as strictly human instincts. 

1. The brute instincts. The honey-making instinct 
of the bee, the web- weaving instinct of the spider, the 
nest-building instinct of the bird, the dam-building in- 
stinct of the beaver, the migratory instinct of many 
animals, are familiar examples of strictly brute instincts. 
The list of this class of instincts may be extended with- 
out limit. Are these specific brute instincts endow- 
ments or developments? 

2. Instincts common to brute and man. These also 
are numerous. Sex-instincts, mother-instincts, danger- 
instincts, food-instincts, etc., are common to brute and 
man. 

3. Human instincts. Instinct in man, as in the brute, 
is ever the same blind feeling, guiding actions to bene- 
ficial ends. In the domain of instinct, the brute stands 
vastly higher than man. The human infant is the most 
helpless and dependent of all young animals. It takes 
long years for us to learn to do intellectually what the 
brute does instinctively. Man is poor in instincts. 
Crying, smiling, frowning, etc., appear very early in in- 
fancy, and are strictly human instincts. The student is 
left here to find out other human instincts. 

Origin of the Instincts.— Few questions now engage 
more thought. The following conclusions are believed 
to be safe : 

1. Each instinct is an original endowment. In- 
stincts are innate. Evolution modifies but does not 



22 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

create. All organic forces, all vital forces, all mental 
energies, are inborn endowments. Instinct uniformly 
tends to wise ends ; but the wisdom is back of the law, 
back of the energy. The brute, without knowing why, 
adapts means to ends. This blind impulse to wise ac- 
tion is implanted by Creative Wisdom. 

2. Instincts are transmitted. However far back, 
the instinct- germ, in some degree, is regarded as an en- 
dowment. That instincts may be greatly modified, 
and that modified instincts may be transmitted, is now 
science. The pigeon is endowed with the homing in- 
stinct, but centuries of training were necessary to give 
us the carrier-pigeon. The pointer-dog is one of many 
good illustrations. The striking modifications in the 
instincts of domesticated animals is the most familiar 
proof. While it is an established law of heredity that 
like tends to produce like, we know that environment 
works striking modifications. Man trains animals on 
the line of native instincts. This is the only improve- 
ment of wdiich brutes are capable. But no amount of 
training or change of environment can produce a honey- 
making quadruped ; something can not be evolved from 
nothing. Given instinct-germs as endowments, and the 
laws of heredity and evolution may account for all modi- 
fications of instincts and all phases of instinctive action. 

References. — For fuller accounts of instinct the reader 
is referred to " Instinct in Brute and Man," Chad bourne ; 
"Mental Evolution in Animals," Eomanes ; " Mind in 
the Lower Animals," Lindsay. 



INSTINCT. 23 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview. — Give the three offices of attention. Give your defi- 
nition of attention. What distinction do you make between outer 
attention and inner attention 1 Why is it so difficult to teach inat- 
tentive pupils? Why can the youth do more than the child? 
Etc., etc. 

Give an example of instinct that you have observed. Why does 
the hen turn her eggs ? Analyze the nest-building instinct of the 
bird, and the dam-building instinct of the beaver. 

Give a distinction between the office of attention and the office 
of instinct. What do you mean by the office of a faculty ? Give 
the three special offices of instinct. Illustrate each by cases you 
have observed. 

What do you understand by the characteristics of a faculty? 
Give the four characteristics of instinct. Give examples. 

Give your definition of instinct. Why do you prefer it to the 
other definitions ? 

What do you mean by reflex action ? by automatic action ? 
Give distinctions between gravity and reflex action ; reflex action 
and instinct. Give examples of each. What do you understand by 
unconscious action ? by conscious action ? by self-conscious action ? 

How do instinct and intellect differ ? Give five examples. Ex- 
plain the diagram showing the relations of instinct and intellect. 
Why does man stand alone ? 

Name the three classes of instincts. Give five strictly brute 
instincts ; five common to man and brute ; five strictly human. 

Give the distinction between an endowment and an evolution. 
Is the honey-making instinct an endowment, or the hereditary ex- 
perience of the race ? May instincts be modified by experience ? 
Illustrate by domesticated animals. Are modified instincts trans- 
mitted ? Like tends to reproduce like, is the great law of heredity : 
does this law extend to mind ? 

Letter. — You may now write a letter to your friend, telling him 
what you know about instinct. Try your best to make clear to him 
the nature of this wonderful endowment. Above all, give him your 
own thoughts and your own illustrations in your own way. Writing 
such a letter will lead you to study instinct with the greatest care. 
Inclose with your letter your analysis of this chapter. 



24: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Topical Analysis of Chapter II. — Instinct. 

I. Analysis of Instinctive Acts* 

Beaver building his dam. Hen turning her eggs. 

II. Office of Instinct. 

Individual good. Cosmic good. 

Race good. 

III. Characteristics of Instinct* 

Guiding impulses. Conscious activity. 

Limited to physical activity. Unerring guide. 

IV. Definitions of Instinct. 

Author's definition. Various definitions. 

Original definition. 
V. Reflex Action and Instinct. 

Reflex action — physical. Instinct — mental. 

VI. Instinct and Intellect. 

Instinct decreases as Intellect increases. 
Intellect decreases as Instinct increases. 
Instinct predominates in the brute. 
Intellect predominates in man. 
VII. Classes of Instincts. 

Strictly brute Instincts. Strictly human Instincts. 

Common Instincts. 
VIII. Origin of Instincts. 
Not organized habits. 
Not inherited experiences. 
Instincts are endowments. 

Instinct is modified by experience and natural selection. 
Modified Instincts are transmitted. 



IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 25 

CHAPTER III. 

IMPORTANT TEEMS EXAMINED. 

Science, in our times, must be presented in the lan- 
guage of the people. But new ideas need to be em- 
bodied in new terms. In your study of the matter- 
world, you have found it necessary to learn new terms 
to express your new acquisitions. As you explore the 
mind-world, you will at every step discover ideas new 
to you. For their expression some unfamiliar terms 
must be used. Easy and familiar terms, when they 
express the ideas exactly, are the best ; but precision 
must be secured, though at the cost of thoughtful re- 
search. The eifort will be to lead you to form clear-cut 
ideas, and to give, in your own words, clear-cut defini- 
tions. When quarried and polished, you will treasure 
your definitions. You will find them more precious 
than diamonds. 

In order that you may begin to build on the rock, 
you will find it best at the outset to master a few lead- 
ing terms. In each case, work up to the idea before 
attempting a definition. A good dictionary is indis- 
pensable. Study the etymology and history of the 
word. Notice its uses. Endeavor to grasp its full 
meaning. Write in your own language a brief defini- 
tion. Apply the definition by giving your own expla- 
nation and illustration. Consider as suggestive these 
brief hints. As in mathematics, work out everything 
for yourself. Mastery characterizes each successful 
educational stej). Only weaklings cower and turn back 



26 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

in the face of difficulties. Strenuous and persistent 

effort educates. 

T _, ( Physical Phenomena, 

I. Phenomena. — j,r v , 1T)1 

( Mental Phenomena. 

The word phenomenon means an appearance, and 

the plural, phenomena, appearances. The rose appears 

red, sweet-smelling, soft. I appear to myself cheerful, 

thankful, hopeful. Whatever appears to us is termed 

phenomena. 

1. Physical Phenomena. — The apple appears white, 
soft, and delicious. The cube appears to have length, 
breadth, and thickness. Gold appears yellow, heavy, 
and malleable. All appearances coming to us through 
the senses are termed physical phenomena. Whatever 
of matter appears is called physical phenomena. 

2. Mental Phenomena. — I perceive the beautiful lily. 
I remember the cheering song. I discern that the sum 
of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two right 
angles. I grieve over the loved and lost. I deter- 
mine to study psychology. I perceive myself remem- 
bering, thinking, feeling, and choosing. I am aware 
of my various mental acts ; they appear to me, and 
hence are termed mental phenomena, or psychical phe- 
nomena. Whatever of mind appears is called mental 
phenomena. 

- ■ ( Matter. 

Substances, 



II. Moumena.* — 



( Mind, 
and 

Necessary Relations. 



Time, 
Space, 
Causation, 
etc. 



See " Noumenal-Perception," chap. viii. 



IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 27 

We mean by noumena the enduring realities wliich 
underlie and make possible phenomena. Noumena 
condition phenomena. We class as noumena substances 
and necessary relations. Appearances are phenomena ; 
the realities of which we affirm phenomena, or which 
make phenomena possible, are noumena. 

1. Substances. — The enduring entities which under- 
lie phenomena are called substances. As there are two 
kinds of phenomena, so there are two substances. 

(1.) Matter. Glass is brittle, hard, transparent. 
These properties of glass are termed physical phenom- 
ena. The material substance of which we affirm brittle, 
hard, transparent, is called matter. In the matter- 
world we find extension, weight, impenetrability. Mat- 
ter is the enduring noumenon of which we assert ex- 
tension, weight, impenetrability. The noumenon, or 
reality of which we assert physical phenomena, is 
called matter. 

(2.) Mind. You remember the multiplication-table. 
You write essays. You hate lying. You choose truth. 
Whatever it is that does these things is called a mind, a 
spirit, a soul. The enduring self, the Ego, the nou- 
menon that thinks, is called a mind. I am, therefore I 
think. The self of which we assert mental phenomena 
is called a mind. 

2. Necessary Relations. — That substances and phe- 
nomena may be, time and space and causation must 
be. As these and such like relations are necessary and 
enduring realities, they are classed as noumena. 

{Physical Energies, or Forces. 
Soul-Energies. 
Divine Energies. 



28 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



We try to understand the dynamics of the universe. 
We learn to call the energies which produce changes, 
causes. " Force, energy, and cause are not identical or 
equivalent, though they are synonymous. Force is 
used to signify an energy that requires another energy 
outside of it to incite it to action, and still another to 
guide it. But the energies of the soul are self-incited 
and self -directed. Self-related force is not thought of 
when we speak of force, and hence force is a bad term 
to express soul-energies." 

PYRAMID OP ENERGIES. 



** 

<?*> 



o 
4/ 






RENEWING. 

PRESERVING. 

CREATING. 



THE WILL POWERS. 



THE EMOTIONS. 



THE INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES 



THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS. 



THE INSTINCTS. 



CO-ORDINATING' FORCES— LITE FORCES 
(VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL.) 



AGGREGATING FORCES— COHESION AND CHEM1SM. 



COSMIC FORCES— GRAVITATION, LIGHT, HEAT, ELECTRICIT Y t ETC. 



It is extremely difficult to arrange the soul-energies from the stand- 
point of cause. Self acts spontaneously. Strictly, no mental act is caused. 
Sensor excitations occasion sensations, sensations occasion perception, ideas 
occasion emotions, emotions occasion choice, choice occasions action ; but 
the series is of conditions and not causes. Each rational mental act is self- 



IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 29 

caused. Then the marvelous interaction of knowing, feeling, and willing 
makes the task doubly difficult. Feelings not illuminated by intellect are 
blind and brutal. Intellect not moved by feeling and directed by will is 
effortless and aimless. Choice not guided by intellect is irrational. At 
best the arrangement of our mental powers must be in the order of de- 
pendence; and of this each one judges for himself and varies the arrange- 
ment accordingly. 

1. Physical Forces. — Bound up in matter are the stu- 
pendous energies which cause perpetual change. We 
dwell amid whispering breezes, rippling brooks, heaving 
oceans, and revolving worlds. The energies which 
cause physical changes are called physical forces. 

2. Soul-Energies, — Minds are endowed with the mar- 
velous energies which change infant Newtons into phi- 
losoj)hers, and savage tribes into enlightened nations. 
A mind is self-acting and is a self-canse. Soul-energies 
are self-incited and self-directed. Tlie energies which 
cause mental changes are called soul-energies. 

3. Divine Energies. — Herbert Spencer, in his final 
summary, says : " Amid all mysteries, there remains one 
absolute certainty: we are ever in the presence of the Infi- 
nite and Eternal Energy, from whom all things proceed." 

Unity of the Universe. — The pyramid of energies may 
help us to grasp the unity of the universe. Each lower 
energy is involved in the higher. The plant-unit in- 
volves cosmic and co-ordinating forces. The brute-unit 
involves vegetable life as well as the lower forces. The 
human unit involves the animal life-forces as well as 
all the lower forces. The matter- world is a unit. All 
the physical forces work in harmony and give us the 
reign of law. So, too, the mind-world is a unit. All 
the mental energies work in harmony and give us men 
and women, society, government. 



30 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

In our times it is not difficult to complete the pyra- 
mid by adding Divine Energies. We thus reach abso- 
lute unity. All substances, all forces, all laws are but 
expressions of the Infinite "Will. The Divine includes 
all and unites all. The universe is a unit. 
l Physical Laws. 

IV. Laws. — ■< Mental Laws. 
( Moral Laws. 

The whole distance through which a body falls in a 
given time is equal to the space passed through during 
the first second multiplied by the square of the time. 
This is a uniform way in which the force of gravity 
acts, and is called a law of falling bodies. That well- 
directed effort promotes growth, is called a law of hu- 
man development. A uniform way in which an en- 
ergy acts is called a law. 

1. Physical Laws. — We speak of the reign of law in 
the matter-world. We mean that the physical forces 
act in certain fixed ways. We observe the fall of the 
apple. We find that all material bodies attract each 
other in proportion to the mass and inversely as the 
square of the distance. We have discovered a law 
of gravity, or a uniform way in which the force of 
gravity acts. Law reigns in the matter-world. The 
modes or ways in which physical forces uniformly act 
are ccdled physical laws. 

2. Mental Laws. — We notice that some incident 
enables us to recall long-forgotten events. We find 
that present ideas tend to suggest past ideas. We have 
discovered a law, or a uniform way in which the mem- 
ory acts. Law reigns in the mind-world. The uniform 
ways in which the mind acts are termed mental laws. 



IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 31 

{Physical Sciences, 
Mental Sciences, 
etc. 
Science is more than classified knowledge. Take 
botany : the central idea is plant-life ; the field of re- 
search is plant-phenomena. We group around the cen- 
tral idea the laws of plant- phenomena. Under these 
laws we arrange principles, facts, illustrations, applica- 
tions. We thus build up the science of botany. The 
systematic arrangement of the laws of phenomena is 
called science. 

1. Physical Sciences. — The sciences that treat of 
physical phenomena are called the physical sciences. 
Take zoology : the central idea is animal life ; the phe- 
nomena of animal life is the field of inquiry. Around 
the central idea we group the laws of animal phenom- 
ena. Under these law T s we arrange principles, facts, 
illustrations, applications. We have created the science 
of zoology. The systematic arrangement of the laws 
of physical phenomena in a special field of research is 
called a physical science. 

2. Mental Sciences. — The sciences that treat of men- 
tal phenomena are called mental sciences. A mental 
science is the systematic arrangement of the laws of 
mental phenomena in a special field of inquiry. Take 
psychology. Here mental phenomena is the field. The 
central idea is mind. We discover the mental powers 
and their modes of action. We arrange around the 
central idea the laws of mental phenomena. Under the 
laws we group principles, facts, illustrations, applica- 
tions. We thus form the science of psychology. The 
systematic classification of the laws of mental phenom- 



VI. Terms designating Self. 



32 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

ena is called psychology. Take education. The cen- 
tral idea is human development. The field is the phe- 
nomena of human growth and human culture. Around 
the central idea are grouped systematically the laws of 
growth and development. Under the laws are grouped 
the principles, the facts, the illustrations, and the ap- 
plications. Thus the science of education is created. 
The systematic arrangement of the laavs of the phe- 
nomena of mental growth and mental developtnent is 
called the science of education. 

A Mind. 

A Soul. 

A Spirit. 

An Ego. 
. A Self. 

We know and feel and will. The self that thinks, 
loves, and chooses is called a mind. Mental philoso- 
phy is a science of the mind. As a human mind is 
embodied, it is called a sonl. Psychology {psyche, 
the soul ; logos, science) is a science of tJie soul. Psy- 
chical means pertaining to the soul. As the mind is a 
spirit entity capable of knowing, feeling, and willing, 
it is also called the spirit. A mind is sometimes called 
a spiritual organism. 

" Is mind an organism ? If it were, could it possibly be im- 
mortal % What is the true definition of organism ? The body is an 
organism, but the mind is something above organism. In an organ- 
ism there are unity and variety of functions — this is. probably the 
reason for calling mind an organism. But life and mind are dis- 
tinct ; a plant lives but does not possess mind. Mind includes all 
that life includes, and much more. In an organism each part is the 
means of realizing every other part, and it is likewise the end for 
which every other part exists. Each part is both means and end for 



IMPORTANT TERMS EXAMINED. 33 

every other part. But mind is whole in each part. It is an indivisi- 
ble unit in knowing, in willing, and in feeling." 

Mind, soul, and spirit are now used in literature and 
science as synonyms. Occasionally we find mind still 
used in the sense of intellect. Soul was formerly used 
to designate animal life and instincts. Spirit is some- 
times used vaguely to designate something, no one 
knows what, different from mind. But these distinc- 
tions are now practically obsolete. 

To the scholar as to the millions, the self that knows, 
feels, and wills, is the mind, the soul, the spirit. 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Beview.— Give a distinction between attention and instinct. 
Give the office of attention ; of instinct. Give the characteristics of 
attention and also of instinct. State the relation between instinct 
and intellect, etc. 

Why are some hard words necessary % How do you work out 
definitions ? Give the etymology and meaning of phenomena. Write 
a definition of physical phenomena ; mental phenomena. Illustrate 
each. 

Why is the unfamiliar word noumena used ? Have we any fa- 
miliar word that expresses the idea? Write a definition of sub- 
stance; of matter; of mind. Give a distinction between phenom- 
ena and noumena; between mind and matter. Are you sure you 
grasp the distinction % 

Give the synonyms of energy. Write a definition of energy in 
which all occur. Write a definition of physical force; of soul- 
energy. What relation do you discover between the lower and the 
higher energies ? Is the universe a unit % 

Write a definition of laws ; of physical laws ; of mental laws. 
Give a distinction between an energy and a law. What do you 
mean by laws of phenomena ? 

Why is mere classified knowledge not science % Write a defini- 
tion of science; of physical science; of psychology; of education. 



34 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Give the etymology and meaning of psychology, psychological, psy- 
chologist, and psychical. 

Define mind ; soul : spirit ; ego ; self. What do you mean by a 
causa-sui ? Show that a mind is not an organism. Give distinc- 
tions sometimes made between mind, soul, and spirit. Are these 
terms now generally used as synonyms ? 



Topical Analysis of Chapter III. — Important 
Terms Examined. 



I. 



[I. 



III. 



IV. 



Phenomena. 

1. Physical Phenomena. 
Noumena. 

1. Substances. 

Matter. 

2. Necessary Relations. 

1. Space Relations. 

2. Time Relations. 

Energies. 

1. Physical Energies, or Forces. 

2. Soul-Enei'gies. 

3. Divine Energies. 

Laws. 



2. Mental Phenomena. 



Mind. 

3. Cause Relations, 
etc., etc. 



1. Physical Laws. 

2. Mental Laws. 



3. Moral Laws. 

4. Etc., etc. 



V. Sciences. 

1. 



Physical Sciences. 

1. Botany. 2. Zoology. 

2. Mental Sciences. 

1. Psychology. 2. Education. 

3. Etc., etc. 

VI. A Noumenon endowed with Soul-Energies is called- 

1. A Mind. 4. A Self. 

2. A Soul. 5. An Ego. 

3. A Spirit. 



TIIE SEXSORIUM. 



35 



CHAPTER IY. 



THE SENSOEIUM. 



We see the landscape, hear the song of "birds, smell 
the rose, taste the orange, touch the paper, press the 
hand of friendship. Vibrations caused by light and 
sound and odor and flavor and contact excite the organ- 
ism. The mind feels the excitation. These feelings 
are called sensations. The part of the organism thus 
excited is called the sensorium. The sensorium is here 
used to include sensor ganglia, sensor nerves, and sen- 
sor organs.' You have diligently studied the body, the 
organism in which we live #nd work. You will now 
re-examine the brain and nerves from the stand-point 
of mind. Here you find the bridge that connects mind 
and matter. 

A Nerve-Cell is a micro- 
scopic clot of granulated 
gray matter. Each cell is 
inclosed and has one or 
more connections. The 
cell substance is granular 
and extremely mobile. An 
excitant, as odor-waves or 
light-waves, causes molec- 
ular changes in the cell- 
substance. The conscious feeling of the excitation of 
sensor nerve-cells is known as sensation. In a human 
brain there are estimated to be more than a billion of 
these nerve-cells.* 




By permission the above cut is taken from Tracy's " Physiology." 



36 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

A Ganglion is a group of nerve-cell 8 connected by 
nerve- fibers. Ganglia have nerve - connections with 
other ganglia. The gray matter of the brain is organ- 
ized into ganglionic groups. " The mind uses the gray 
matter in some unknown way to affect the body, or to 




gain impressions through the body." Draw a group of 
nerve-cells ; connect the cells as you do the cells of a 
battery ; inclose by a membrane ; make nerve-connec- 
tions with similar groups. You will have a rude pict- 
ure of a ganglion, as in the above cut.* Reflex sensor 
ganglia are found in the roots of the spinal nerves and 
throughout the sympathetic system. 

A Nerve is a white connecting cord through which 
nerve-currents pass. These nerve-fibers permeate the 
system and form the white matter of the brain, the 
spinal cord, etc. 

1. Structure. A nerve consists of three parts : (1.) 
The external sheath, a transparent membrane ; (2.) The 

* Taken by permission from Bastian'a " Brain the Organ of Mind." 



THE SENSOKIUM. 



37 



medullary sheath, a white, fatty substance, isolating and 
protecting the nerve-axis; (3.) A thin thread of gray 



matter called the axis. The axis is composed of minute 
fibrils. Illustrate with a common lead-pencil — the paint 
representing the external sheath ; the wood, the medul- 
lary sheath ; the lead, the nerve-axis. 

2. Office. Nerves transmit vibrations. Their sole 
office is to transmit sensor and motor molecular waves. 
As the nerve-axis conducts the vibrations, it may be con- 
sidered the essential part of the nerve. Like telegraph- 
wires, nerves simply carry messages. 

3. Classes. Nerves that convey impressions from 
sensor organs to sensor ganglia are called sensor nerves ; 
as, the optic nerves are the sensor nerves that convey 
impressions from the eyes to the optic ganglia. Nerves 
that convey motor impulses from motor ganglia to mo- 
tor organs are called motor nerves. 

The following classification of the cerebro-spinal nerves, by Dr. 
S. S. Laws, is simple and complete : 

Cerebro-Spinal Nerves. — 



SENSORY 


NERVES IN PAIRS : 


MOTOR NERVES IN PAIRS : 


1. Cranial- 


-1. Olfactory. 


1. Cranial- 


-1. Oculomotorius. 




2. Optic. 




2. Patheticus. 




3. Trifacial. 




3. Small root of V. 




4. Gustatory. 




4. Abducens. 




5. Auditory. 




5. Facial. 




6. Glossopharyngeal. 




6. Spinal accessory. 




7. Pneumogastric. 




7. Hypoglossal. 


2. Spinal.— 


-31 pairs of posterior 


2. Spinal- 


-31 pairs of anterior 




roots. 


- 


roots. 


38 pairs 


of sensory nerves. 


38 pair 


3 of motor nerves. 



38 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

4. Nerve-fibers are continuous. Sensor nerves ex- 
tend without break from sensor organs to sensor gan- 
glia. Motor nerves are continuous from motor ganglia 
to motor organs. Let silk threads represent sensor 
nerves and cotton threads motor nerves. Trace these 
threads through all their windings. You will find each 
continuous. Nerves do not divide or unite. 

Nerve - Currents. — Touch a warm surface. The 
stimulus in some unknown way starts nerve-currents 
which move through tactile nerves to tactile ganglia. 
You feel the dangerous warmth. You will the with- 
drawal of your hand, and thus start currents in the mo- 
tor ganglia. The motor currents move through motor 
nerves to muscles. The muscles contract and thus with- 
draw your hand. The nature of the change produced 
in nerve-liber by stimulus is quite unknown. How 
matter affects mind or mind matter must be classed 
with the many unsolved problems of science. But sci- 
ence now claims to have demonstrated that (1) sensor 
nerve-currents move at the rate of 140 to 150 feet per 
second, and motor nerve-currents about 100 feet per 
second. (2) Stimuli excite vibratory nerve- currents. 
A wave of molecular movement passes through the 
nerve. These nerve-currents are the only media of 
communication between the mind and the outer world. 
(3) Sensation takes place only in the sensor ganglia 
found in the gray matter of the cerebrum. 

A Sensor Organ is a vital mechanism capable of re- 
ceiving and transmitting sensor vibrations. Each sen- 
sor organ is connected by sensor nerves with its sensor 
ganglia in the surface of the brain. Take, for example, 
the optic apparatus : 



THE SENSORIUM. 39 

Objective World - Q + j$£j + { ^ j _ Mind. 

Striking the retina of the eye, light- vibrations in some 
unknown way excite sensor vibrations, which rnove in 
molecular waves through the optic nerves to the optic 
ganglia. The nerve-currents agitate the optic ganglia, 
and the mind feels and interprets the vibratory signals 
— sees the rising sun. The ear does not change sound- 
waves into sensor waves, but in the ear sound-waves ex- 
cite sensor waves. 

A Special Sense receives extra organic messages. 
The world of color and form comes to us through the 
eye ; the world of sound through the ear ; the world of 
odor through the nose ; the world of flavor through the 
mouth ; the world of touch through the skin. As each 
of these senses opens to us a special world, they are 
called the five special senses. 

A General Sense transmits organic sensations. Con- 
ditions of the organs of the body come to us through 
the general senses. Sensations of indigestion are mes- 
sages from the stomach. Toothache is a message from 
a nerve. Pain and comfort, hunger and satisfaction, 
temperature, and so forth, are some of the messages re- 
ceived through the fifteen general senses. 

The Brain. — Organism reaches its climax in the hu- 
man brain. A human brain, it is estimated, embraces 
not less than one billion nerve-cells, nor less than five 
billion nerve-fibers. To produce an imperfect brain- 
map has required ages of toil. Much remains for other 
ages to discover. The brain and its connections must 
continue to be the most absorbing field of scientific 



40 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



research. The brain includes the lower, middle, and 
higher nerve-centers. The cuts on pages 40, 42, and 
46 give different views of the brain. 

The lower nerve-centers are the medulla oblongata 
and the cerebellum. Like the spinal cord, these are 
reflex and distributing centers. Some claim that the 
cerebellum is a relay -battery to enforce nerve-currents. 
Others claim that it is connected with the co-ordination 
of movements. The following cut represents a perpen- 
dicular section of the brain on the median hue.* 




The middle nerve-centers are the pons Varolii, the 
cerebral peduncles, the corpora quadrigemina, the optic 
thalami, the corpora striata, etc. These ganglia are 
geographically central, and, as all messages between the 
outer and inner worlds seem to pass through these cen- 

* The above cut is taken by permission from Bastian, p. 452. 



THE SENSORIUM. 4X 

ters, they may be considered telegraphic headquarters. 
Who can tell what changes take place in these myste- 
rious centers \ Destroy these centers, and you render 
sensation as well as voluntary action impossible. Sever 
the nerve-connections between the tubercula quadri- 
gemina and the cerebrum, and vision is wholly reflex. 
The animal is utterly unconscious of seeing. 

Bemarks. — The spinal cord, the lower nerve-centers, and the 
middle nerve-centers, with their nerve-connections, make a wonder- 
ful organism for reflex action; but it is only a machine. When 
stimulus falls upon the appropriate sensor surface, a wave of molec- 
ular movement is sent up the attached sensor nerves to a nerve- 
center, which thereupon issues another wave of molecular movement 
down a motor nerve to the group of muscles over whose action it 
presides. When the muscles receive this wave of nervous influence, 
they contract. This kind of response to stimuli is purely mechani- 
cal, or non-mental, and is termed reflex action. Thus far we fail to 
find mind. Remove the cerebrum : the animal may still show re- 
flex action, but all traces of mind will have disappeared. All ac- 
tivity below the cerebrum is unconscious activity, is non-mental.* 

The higher nerve-centers are the cerebral hemi- 
spheres. Here is the border-land where mind and mat- 
ter meet. The soul is embodied ; it dwells in and 
works in connection with a physical organism. In man 
the cerebrum is so large that it completely fills the arch 
of the skull as far down as the level of the eyebrows. 
The two hemispheres of which it consists meet face to 
face in the middle line of the skull, which runs from 
the top of the nose backward. The cerebrum is com- 
posed of two conspicuously distinct parts, called re- 
spectively the gray matter and the white matter. The 
gray matter is external, enveloping the white matter 

* Holbrook. 



42 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



like a skull-cap, and is composed of a vast number of 
nerve-cells connected together by nerve-fibers, and 
forming many ganglia. 




Under surface of the brain, showing the great complexity of its structure. 
At the lower part of the cut is the cerebellum.* 

The Cerebral Ganglia. — The locations of some of the 
ganglia are known, but the construction of a reliable 
cerebral map is the work of the future. A classification 
of cerebral ganglia with reference to office is all that 

* Taken by permission from "Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene," 
Tracy, Fig. 58, p. 195. 



THE SENSORIUM. 43 

is here attempted. Such a classification is considered suf- 
ficient both for psychological and educational purposes : 

1. The sensor ganglia are the portions of the cere- 
brum agitated by sensor waves. In some unknown way 
the mind feels these excitations. These feelings are 
called sensations. 

2. The intellective ganglia are the portions of the 
cerebrum connected with knowing ; as, when we per- 
ceive, remember, think. In some unknown way the 
mind uses these ganglia in perceiving, remembering, 
and reasoning. 

3. The emotive ganglia are the portions of the 
cerebrum called into activity in feeling; as when we 
love or rejoice. 

4. The motor ganglia are the portions of the cere- 
brum excited by volition. A mind is a creative first 
cause, and originates motion. Self, as will, starts motor 
nerve-currents — in some unknown way excites motor 
ganglia and thus originates motion. 

Remarks. — 1. The cerebral hemispheres are duplicates. Each 
is complete in itself. In case one is paralyzed, the soul in all its 
powers works through the other. The right hemisphere is connected 
with the left half of the body, and the left hemisphere with the right 
half of the body. 

2. The cerebral ganglia are interconnected by nerve-fibers so as 
to form an organic unit. Each ganglion supplements all other 
ganglia. Thus may be seen the unity and harmony of the brain and 
local brain-centers. 

3. Specific mental activities occur in connection with specific 
ganglionic areas. Thus, just behind the forehead, on either side, we 
find the language ganglia. Injure these, and we are unable to ex- 
press ideas in words. The location of the special sensor ganglia by 
Perrier and others seems to be now accepted. 

4. The cerebrum dominates. Orders issued from headquarters 

5 



44 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

take precedence. Reflex action becomes the servant of volition. 
Walking is ordinarily reflex action ; but, when we meet obstructions, 
action becomes intelligent and voluntary. Mental life is connected 
with the action of the higher nerve-centers. Only when the cerebrum 
is called to take part is there any distinct mental accompaniment. 
The cerebrum thus stands in relation to the lower centers somewhat 
as the head of an office stands in relation to his subordinates. The 
mechanical routine of the office is carried on by them. He is called 
on to interfere only when some unusual action has to be carried out, 
and reflection and decision are needed. Moreover, just as the prin- 
cipal of an office is able to hand over work to his subordinates when 
it ceases to be unusual, and becomes methodized and reduced to rule, 
so we find that the brain, or certain portions of it, are able to with- 
draw from actions when they have grown thoroughly familiar. 

5. Cerebration is merely brain-action in knowing, feeling, and 
loilling. The mind perceives, thinks, acts ; but it works in connec- 
tion with the ganglia. The brain produces no thoughts. Uncon- 
scious cerebration means unconscious mental activity. The cere- 
bral ganglia are merely the instruments of mind. 

6. Ganglia performing different offices may be near together, as 
in the spinal cord ; while ganglia performing similar offices may be 
far apart. The difficulty of constructing a cerebral map is apparent. 

7. We do not understand the precise nature of the relation of 
the body and the soul. In some unknown way the mind uses the 
gray matter of the brain to affect the body, or to gain impressions 
through the body. 



CHAPTER V. 

SENSATION. 

By this is meant the capability to feel sensor excita- 
tion, as in seeing, hearing, and smelling. 

Luminous bodies cause vibrations of luminiferous 
ether. Light-waves strike against the retina of the eye, 
causing sensor waves ; these sensor nerve-currents, in 



SENSATION". 



45 



molecular waves, flash through the optic nerves, passing 
through the optic thalamus, and the tubercula quadri- 
gemina to the optic ganglia. The sensor light-waves 
excite, agitate, or affect the optic ganglia of the cere- 
brum. The mind feels the agitation and is aware of 
the feeling. This conscious feeling of sensor excitation 
is called sensation. 

Reflex Sensor Action. — The mind in sensation is 
conscious of feeling the excitation. Sensor currents 
sent back from reflex centers are not felt — do not oc- 
casion sensation. Even agitations of the cerebral sen- 
sor ganglia do not necessarily occasion sensations. The 
clock struck ten, but I did not hear it, because I was 
absorbed in my work. 

" What sees is mind, 

What hears is mind ; 

The ear and eye 

Are deaf and blind." 



SENSORIUM AND M0T0RIU3I. 




46 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

* 10 




Diagram of the sensori-motor processes of cerebral activity. 1, optic 
thalamus with its centers and ganglionic cells. 2, corpus striatum. 
3, course of the propagation of acoustic impressions : these arrive in 
the corresponding center (4), are radiated toward the sensorium (5), 
and reflected at 6 and 6' to the large cells of the corpus striatum, and 
thence at 7 and 7' toward the motor regions of the spinal axis. 8, 
course of tactile impressions: these are concentrated (at 9) in the 
corresponding center, radiated thence into the plexuses of the senso- 
rium (10), reflected to the large cortical cells (11), and thence propa- 
gated to the large cells of the" corpus striatum, and finally to the dif- 
ferent segments of the spinal axis. 13, course of optic impressions : 
these are concentrated (at 14) in their corresponding center, then 
radiated toward the sensorium (at 15) ; they are reflected toward the 
large cells of the corpus striatum, and afterward propagated to the dif- 
ferent segments of the spinal axis.— (Luys, " The Brain and its Func- 
tions," p. 61. Inserted by permission.) 



SENSATION. 47 

The Sensorium and the Motorium. — Self reigns in the 
cerebral ganglia. Here he receives messages and issues 
his mandates. Mind is the inner world, is self. All 
else, even the sensorium and motorium, is the outer 
world, is the not-self. 

1. The sensorium is the portion of the nervous or- 
ganism which conditions sensation, and in common use 
is limited to the cerebral hemispheres. It is here used, 
for the sake of brevity, to include the sensor organs, 
special and general, the sensor nerves, and the sensor 
ganglia. As sense-perception occurs only in connection 
with the cerebral sensor ganglia, these ganglia strictly 
constitute the sensorium. 

2. The motorium is the portion of the nervous or- 
ganism through which self sends messages to the outer 
world. It includes the motor ganglia, the motor 
nerves, and the motor organs or muscles. As voluntary 
motion begins in the motor ganglia, these strictly con- 
stitute the motorium. 

3. Intellective and emotive ganglia are inserted to 
give completeness of outline. These are the cerebral 
ganglia, in connection with which knowing and feeling 
occur. It is important to note the nerve-connections 
between the various ganglia. Though composed of a 
billion nerve-cells and live billion nerve-fibers, the brain 
is an organic unit. Marvellous structure ! Truly our 
bodies are fearfully and wonderfully made ! 

Cerebral Action — Sensor Motor. — The thoughtful stu- 
dent will linger over this inside view of brain-activity 
in sensation and volition. 

Place on the board the diagram on page 45 and the cut on page 
46. Let each student trace sensor stimuli through each sensor line 



48 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 




to the mind ; also trace motor stimuli through the motor apparatus 
to the outer world. Here patient work will reward effort. 

The Five Special Sensor Lines convey impressions 
from the outer world to the inner world. Tliey are 
called special, because each line opens np to us a new 
world. Each sensor line is called a sensor apparatus. 



SENSATION. 49 

1. The optic apparatus consists of the eyes, the 
optic nerves, and the optic ganglia. Luminous bodies 
produce vibrations in luminiferous ether. Light-waves 
strike the retina, causing sensor light-currents. Mo- 
lecular light-waves move through the optic nerves and 
agitate the optic ganglia. The mind feels the excita- 
tion, and knows that it feels it. The soul experiences 
the sensation of light. The mind, as intellect, inter- 
prets these sensations ; perceives colors, forms, sizes. 

2. The auditory apparatus embraces the ears, the 
auditory nerves, and the auditory ganglia. Vibrations 
of sonorous bodies produce sound-waves. The clock 
strikes. The sound- vibrations start sensor sound-waves 
in the ear. The sensor waves vibrate through the audi- 
tory nerves and in the auditory ganglia. Self, as sensa- 
tion, feels the excitation — hears the strokes ; self, as in- 
tellect, interprets the sensations — perceives nine o'clock. 

3. The olfactory apparatus includes the nose, the ol- 
factory nerves, and the olfactory ganglia. Odor-waves 
caused by odorous bodies start, in the nose, sensor odor- 
waves. These waves vibrate through the olfactory 
nerves, and produce changes in the olfactory ganglia. 
The soul feels the excitation — experiences the sensa- 
tions of odor ; interprets the sensations — perceives 
sweet odors. 

4. The gustatory apparatus consists of the mouth, 
the gustatory nerves, and the gustatory ganglia. Contact 
of the gustatory organs with articles possessing flavor 
excites gustatory nerve-currents. These currents pass in 
molecular waves through the gustatory nerves and affect 
the gustatory ganglia. The conscious affection of the 
gustatory ganglia is the sensation called taste. Self, as 



50 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

intellect, interprets these sensations — perceives sugar as 
sweet and grapes as delicious. 

5. The tactile apparatus includes the skin, the tactile 
nerves, and the tactile ganglia. I touch the paper ; the 
contact starts tactile waves which vibrate through the 
tactile nerves and in the tactile ganglia. The soul is 
conscious of the excitation — experiences tactile sensa- 
tions. The soul interprets the sensations — perceives 
the paper as smooth. 

General Sensor Lines. — The fifteen general sensor 
lines carry messages from the organs and tissues of the 
body. The excitant is within the body. For illustra- 
tion we may take the 

Muscular line. The muscular apparatus embraces 
muscles, muscular nerves, and muscular ganglia. Be- 
sides their contractile office, muscles seem to be sensi- 
tive to pressure or straining. The nerves which convey 
from the muscles to the muscular ganglia the sensor 
waves of pressure are called muscular nerves. We feel 
sensations of pressure or weight. It is still questioned 
whether the muscular should be classed as a special or 
a general sense. The student is left to study out and 
diagram the general sensor lines. 

Comparative Psychology. — You have taken a lively 
interest in the study of comparative anatomy and phys- 
iology. I trust that you will feel a still deeper inter- 
est in comparing human and brute mind. We have 
no sense which we do not find in some brute ; and the 
senses of brutes, so far as we can judge, are affected in 
the same way as ours are, by the same objects. They 
may have some of the senses more acute than ours are, 
but they differ from ours only in degree, as the senses 



SENSATION. 51 

of men differ in strength and delicacy. Acnteness of 
sensation is a characteristic of the lower animals. So 
far as we know, no brute has a sense that differs from 
ours in kind. If we judge, as we do in every other case, 
it must be plain to every observer that brutes have 
the same kind of enjoyment and suffering, through the 
senses, that men have. To heat and cold, hunger and 
thirst, food and poison, sickness, pain, and death they 
have the same bodily relations in kind that we have.* 

Education of the Senses. — " The senses are all capable of being 
educated. Our tastes may become more delicate, and may keep us 
from using deleterious food. The sense of smell may be cultivated, 
and add to our enjoyments; and odors, especially by means of 
flowers, may be provided to gratify it. Hearing may be improved 
and made more sensitive and accurate. Music is a source of pleas- 
ure, which may be enhanced until it becomes elysian. Feeling may 
be made very delicate in its perceptions, and capable of distinguish- 
ing very nice differences of objects. The senses of pressure and of 
weight may be so trained as to give us very accurate measurements. 
But the eye is the most intellectual of all our sense-organs, enabling 
us at a glance to take in the vast and the minute, the near and the 
distant. 

" All these should be cultivated by training in the family and at 
school. Children should be taught from their earliest years to use 
their senses intelligently and habitually. They should be encour- 
aged to observe carefully the objects around them, and taught to 
describe and report them correctly. It has been said that there are 
more false facts than false theories, and this arises from persons 
not being trained to notice facts accurately, neither adding to them 
nor taking from them, nor gilding them by the fancy, nor detracting 
from them to serve an end. Pictures and models are used very ex- 
tensively in modern education, and serve a good purpose, as they 
call in the senses to minister to the intellect. But the things them- 
selves are vastly more instructive than any representation can be. 
So children should be taught to use their senses, especially their ears 

* "See Instinct in Animals and Men," Chadbourne. 



52 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

and their eyes, in observing the objects around them, and the events 
that occur, and storing them up for future reflection. Plants and 
animals and stars, men and women and children, fall under our eyes 
at all times, and their nature, shapes, and actings should be dili- 
gently scanned for practical use and for scientific attainment." * 

Physiological Psychology. — Carpenter's " Mental 
Physiology," Wundt's "Physiological Psychology," and 
Pibot's " Empirical Psychology " are remarkable works. 
The latter gives an account of German investigation in 
this field. These researches have, for the psychologist, 
an intense interest. They throw light upon the con- 
scious acts of the mind. They demonstrate the infinite 
importance of hygienic living. Even their failures are 
invaluable. The true psychology gathers up the facts 
of mind established by all schools of investigators. 

The investigations of physiologists have thrown much light on 
the manner in which material objects affect the different sense-or- 
gans, and also on the excitation and action of the sensorium, and 
especially of the brain ; but they necessarily stop with sensorial phe- 
nomena. It is impossible to cross the line that divides the physical 
and the psychical, and explain physiologically the action of the soul.f 

Body and Mind.:): — " A human being consists of two clearly dis- 
tinguishable parts — body and mind, or soul. The body has its dis- 
tinctive capacities and powers, and so has the soul. To the body 
belong weight and extension ; to the soul, the powers of knowing, 
feeling, and willing. To the question, What is the soul in its es- 
sence? we may return the question, What is the body in its essence? 
The one question is as easy of solution as the other. The human 
mind is forced to assume a substance to which belong the known 
properties, or powers, of matter. In like manner it is compelled to 
assume a substance, or being, in which exist the powers of the soul. 
If, then, the question be returned, What is the soul ? we answer, It 
is the part of man that has the powers of knowing, feeling, and 
willing." 

* McCosh. t White. % Larkin Dunton. 



SENSATION. 53 



SUG GESTIVM STUB Y-HINTS. 

Review. — Give distinctions between phenomena and noumena ; 
force and law; instinct and intellect. Define science, education, 
psychology, mind. Etc., etc. 

Draw and describe a nerve-cell ; a ganglion ; a nerve. Give the 
office of nerves ; of sensor nerves ; of motor nerves ; of afferent 
nerves ; of efferent nerves. Show that nerve-fibers are continuous ; 
compare to telegraph-wires. Explain the meaning of nerve-cur- 
rents. 

Give the meaning of sense-organs ; of terminal organs. Show 
the office of sense-organs. Give the distinction between the special 
and the general senses. 

Give the estimated number of nerve-cells and nerve-fibers in a 
human brain. Name the lower nerve-centers of the brain ; the 
central nerve-centers ; the higher nerve-centers. 

Define sensorium ; what does it include ? Define motorium ; 
what does it include ? Give the office of sensor ganglia ; of intel- 
lective ganglia ; of emotive ganglia ; of motor ganglia. 

Place on the board a diagram of the sensorium and motorium, 
and also the cuts on pages 46 and 48. Trace impressions from the 
outer to the inner world through each of the special sensor lines. 

Describe, give office of, and illustrate the workings of the optic 
apparatus ; of the auditory apparatus ; of the olfactory apparatus ; 
of the gustatory apparatus ; of the tactile apparatus ; of the muscu- 
lar apparatus. Give examples. 

Define sensation. Do agitations of the sensorium of which you 
are not conscious produce sensation ? What is it that hears and 
sees! What is reflex action? automatic action? 

Why should we spare no effort to keep our bodies in the best 
possible condition ? Why is it criminal to violate hygienic laws ? 

What is meant by comparative psychology ? How do brute and 
human sensations differ? 

Letter. — Tell your friend some things you know about the sen- 
sorium and sensation. Dwell upon the wonders of the organism 
in connection with which mind works. Explain in detail and fully 
how messages pass between the outer and the inner world. Inclose 
your outline of these chapters. 



54 



ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Topical Analysis of Chapters IV and V. 

Sensation, 



I. 


Nerve-Cells. 






Nerve-fluid. 


Nerve-force. 


I. 


Ganglia. 






Reflex ganglia. 


Motor ganglia. 




Sensor ganglia. 




III. 


Nerves. 






Structure. 


Classification. 




Office. 


Nerve-currents. 


V. 


Sense-Organs. 






Special. 


General. 


V. 


The Brain. 






Lower nerve-centers. 


Higher nerve-centers. 




Middle nerve-centers. 




VI. 


Cerebral Ganglia. 






Sensor ganglia. 


Emotive ganglia. 




Intellective ganglia. 


Motor ganglia. 


VII. 


Definitions. 






Sensorium. 


Sensation. 




Motorium. 




VIII. 


Reflex Sensor Action. 






Automatic action. 


Reflex action. 


IX. 


Sensorinm and Motorium. 






Explain sensation. 


Explain motion. 


X. 


Special Sensor Lines. 






Optic apparatus. 


Gustatory apparatus. 




Auditory apparatus. 


Tactile apparatus. 



XL 



XII. 
XIII. 



Olfactory apparatus. 
General Sensor Lines. 

Muscular line. Thirst-line. 

Hunger-line. Digestive line. 

Etc., etc. 
Comparative Psychology. 
Hygiene and Education of the Senses;. 



PART II. 
THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 



CHAPTER VI.— Sense-Perception, or Sense-Intuition. 

VII. — Conscious Perception, or Self-Consciousness. 
VIII.— Noumenal Perception, or Noumenal Intuition. 
IX. — Presentation— General View. 




THE HUMAN SOUL. 



SECOND PART. 

PERCEPTIVE-KNOWING— THE PERCEPTIVE POWERS. 



SOUL-ENERGIES. 

Befoee beginning the study of your capabilities in 
detail, it is important that you take a general view of 
your powers. To aid you in this, the soul-energies are 
here represented by a tree. " Like all graphic devices, 
it represents the facts only approximately."'' It is earn- 
estly hoped, however, that this device will help you to 
gain true conceptions of the human soul. 

Soul-Energies. 

Knowing. 
Perceptive knowing. 

1. Sense-perception. 3. Noumenal perception. 

2. Conscious perception. 
Representative knowing. 

4. Memory. 5. Phantasy. G. Imagination. 
Thought-knowing. 

7. Conception. 8. Judgment. 9. Reason. 
Feeling. 

Instincts. 
Strictly brute instincts. Strictly human instincts. 

Instincts common to brute and man. 
Physical feelings. 

Appetites. General senses. Special senses. 
Emotions. 
Egoistic emotions. Cosmic emotions. 

Altruistic emotions. 
Willing. 

Attention. Action. Choice. 



58 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION". 

The one soul is capable of acting in different ways. 
These distinct soul-energies are called capabilities, or 
powers, or faculties. Self is an indivisible unit in know- 
ing, in feeling, and in willing. A faculty is simply a 
method in which the mind can act. "With the tree on 
the opposite page in view, you may examine carefully 
the outline of soul-energies. 

Keep constantly in mind the central fact that the 
mind is one and acts as a unit. Each capability supple- 
ments all other capabilities. " The soul feels while it 
knows, and determines while it feels." As you study 
your individual powers you will recur often to this 
connected outline, and thus learn to view each of jour 
energies in its relations to your other powers. You 
will learn to think of a mental power as merely one of 
your capabilities. 

The Perceptive Powers. — By these we mean our 
powers to know immediately. We know at once that 
ice is cold, that we are glad, that things exist and oc- 
cupy space. We do not need to reason up to these 
ideas. We are endowed with capabilities to know some 
things directly. Our powers of direct insight are 
known by the following 



Names. 



The Perceptive Powers. 
The Preservative Powers. 
The Intuitive Powers. 
The Simple Cognitive Powers. 



We behold immediately material things having 
qualities. We perceive the mountain as lofty and snow- 
capped. We perceive ourselves recalling and reasoning. 
Our capabilities to make present, or to know immediate- 
ly, are called our presentatire powers. As we know di- 



SENSE-PERCEPTION. 59 

rectly, or intuitively, we call these faculties our intuitive 
powers. As perceptive knowing is the simplest form 
of knowing, we term these capabilities the simple cog- 
nitive powers. Cognize, to know, cognition, the act of 
knowing, and cognitive, the power to know, are valuable 
terms in mental science. 

( Sense-Perception, or Sense-Intuition. 
The Perceptive Powers J Conscious Perception, or Consciousness. 
are — J Noumenal-Perception, or Noumenal-Intu- 

l ition. 

That he may explore the matter-world, man is en- 
dowed with sense-perception. That he may gain self- 
knowledge, he is endowed with conscious-perception. 
That he may cognize the world of necessary realities 
and thus build on the rock, he is endowed with nou- 
menalperception. 



k ? 



CHAPTER YI. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 

By this is meant the power to perceive directly ma- 
terial objects. Self as sense-perception stands face to 
face with physical phenomena. I know at once this 
tree as large, green, cone-bearing. This capability is 
designated by the following 

r Sense-Perception, or Objective-Perception. 
Names. — -j Outer-Perception, or External-Perception. 
( Sense-Intuition, or Perception. 

Each term embodies the same idea — self endowed 
with the capability to know immediately the outer 



60 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

world. Sense-perception, the power to gain knowledge 
through the senses, is most expressive, and is now uni- 
versally used. For brevity, perception is often used, 
but is indefinite. 

Sensation is the poioer to feel consciously sensor ex- 
citations. You speak. Sound-waves vibrate through 
the air, in my ears, through my auditory nerves, in my 
auditory ganglia. I feel the excitation ; I hear you 
speak. I interpret the sensations ; your words are to 
me signs of ideas. Self, as sense-perception, interprets 
sensations — converts sensations into ideas. 

Sensation is the basis of all knowing. Without sensations there 
can be no sense-perceptions. Without particular notions there can 
be no general notions. In order that sense-perceptions may be, sen- 
sations must be. It is a curious fact that all our knowing begins 
with blind feelings. Out of these blind feelings we make our sense- 
ideas. Sense-perception includes sensation. 

Acts of Sense-Perception analyzed. — Notice carefully 
yourself perceiving. What do you do when you per- 
ceive ? What are the steps in acts of sense-perception ? 
What are the products ? Take this object. You press 
it ; it is soft. You touch it ; it is smooth. You smell 
it; it is fragrant. You drop it; the sound is slight. 
You see it ; it is white. You interpret these sensations, 
and cognize the object as a rose. In this way you may 
profitably examine many acts of perception. You find 
in an act of sense-perception four distinct elements: 
sensation, recalling, perceiving, and self -perceiving. 

1. Sensations are the stuff out of which sense-ideas 
are made. The blind see no colors ; the deaf hear no 
sounds. The blind gain no percepts of color; the deaf 
gain no percepts of sound. 



SENSE-PERCEPTION. 61 

2. Becalling other experiences, you refer your sen- 
sations, immediate and revived, to the object. You 
perceive the fragrant white rose. 

3. Perceiving. Fusing the sensations, immediate 
and recalled, you form an idea of the object. You in- 
terpret your sensations, and make out of them the no- 
tion, this soft, fragrant white rose. This is sense-per- 
ceiving. 

4. Self -perceiving. You are aware that you perceive 
the rose. You stand face to face with material objects. 
You know directly self perceiving material things. 

From your analysis of many acts of sense-perception 
you discover the 

Office of Sense-Perception. — The soul is a unit, but 
is capable of acting in many ways. The distinct ways 
in which the soul can act are called soul-energies, mental 
powers, mental faculties, or mental capabilities. Office 
is used to designate the special work of a mental power 
in the mental economy. Self, as attention, concentrates 
effort ; concentration is the office of attention. Self, as 
memory, recalls ; recollection is the office of memory. 
Self, as sense-perception, interprets sensations, or con- 
verts sensations into ideas; interpreting sensations is 
the office of sense-perception. The mind, as sense-per- 
ception, forms sense-ideas, or gains a direct knowledge 
of material objects. From your analysis of acts of 
sense-perception you discover the 

Characteristics of Sense-Perception. — This power of 
self is distinguished from all his other capabilities by 
marked peculiarities : 

1. Self j as sense-perception, knows intuitively physi- 
cal phenomena. I know the board is black because I 



62 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

see it black. I know the sugar is sweet because I taste 
it sweet. So with all sense-knowing. I look directly 
on material phenomena. The soul, as sense-perception, 
stands face to face with the outer world. I know im- 
mediately objects as extended and resisting. I do not 
need to prove to myself that the rose smells sweet ; I 
know it intuitively. I know the wall is here, for I see 
it extended, and feel it resisting my efforts to pass 
through. 

2. The mind, as sense-perception, is limited to physi- 
cal phenomena. A being endowed merely with sense- 
perception would forever remain ignorant of self. Self, 
as sense-perception, knows physical phenomena, and 
nothing more. 

3. The mind, as sense-perception, gains only con- 
crete individual notions of material objects. Beings 
not endowed with other powers are incapable of forming 
class-notions. The brute perceives individual trees, but 
is incapable of thinking the many trees into one class. 

Definitions of Sense-Perception. — Self, as sense-per- 
ception, explores the outer world. Physical phenomena 
come to us vibrating in our sensoriums. The soul is 
aware of its sensor excitations, and assimilates its sensa- 
tions, immediate and revived, into notions called sense- 
ideas. The capability to convert sensations into ideas 
is termed sense-perception. 

1. Sense-perception is the power to know immedi- 
ately material objects. Strictly, sense-perception is the 
power to know immediately physical phenomena. But 
sensations are signs of material things. The mind, as 
sense-perception, translates these signs into notions of 
things. These concrete individual notions of material 



SENSE-PERCEPTION. 63 

things are termed sense-ideas. Self stands face to face 
with the material world — hence knows immediately, 
knows intuitively material objects as having properties. 
We see the tall tree, not the abstract phenomena, tall. 
We perceive noumena as well as phenomena. We gain 
a knowledge of things, not of mere abstract impressions. 

2. Original. Write your definition of sense-per- 
ception. What does it mean to you % Remember that 
what others have thought will prove beneficial to you 
only as it leads you to better and clearer thinking. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Sully : Sense-perception is the power 
to integrate sense-impressions, immediate and revived, into percepts. 
2. Porter: Sense-perception is the power to gain a knowledge of 
material objects through the sensorium. 3. Mahan : Sense-percep- 
tion is the faculty to apprehend the qualities of material substances. 
4. McCosh : Sense-perception is the power to gain a knowledge of 
things affecting us, external to ourselves and extended. 5. White : 
Sense-perception is the power to know directly present and material 
objects. 

Some writers seem to teach that self as sense-perception knows 
directly the noumena as well as phenomena. To me it is clear that 
self as noumenal-intuition perceives substance underlying phenom- 
ena, while self as sense-intuition perceives physical phenomena and 
nothing more. 

Sense - Percepts. — The ideas we gain through the 
senses are called sense-ideas, or sense-percepts. A sense- 
percept is a product of sense-perception. I see, hear, 
touch, smell, and taste this orange. The idea, this 
orange, is a sense-percept. Sense-percepts are our ideas 
of material things. 

1. Sense-percepts are concrete notions. Concrete 
ideas are ideas of things with qualities. The notion, 
red, is abstract ; but the notion, this red rose, is a con- 
crete idea— is a sense-percept. 



G4 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. Sense-percepts are particular notions. Fruit is 
a general notion, but this green apple is a particular 
notion — is a sense-percept. Sensations, immediate and 
remembered, are the materials of which sense-percepts 
are made. Sense-percepts are our concrete individual 
notions of material things. 

3. Re-percepts are remembered percepts. You ob- 
serve the ocean-steamer. The idea thus made present 
is a sense-percept. When you recall this idea and thus 
make it present again, it is called a re-percept. 

Remark. — Some critical thinkers limit the use of sense-percept 
to the product of a single sense, and call our ideas of objects sense- 
concepts, or individual concepts. But Sully, McCosh, Porter, and 
others, term our concrete ideas of external objects sense-percepts. 
Percept is used in this sense in literature and life. A concept is 
always a class-notion, but a percept is a notion of an individual 
thing. 

Direct and Indirect Sense-Percepts. — I see, and hear, 
and feel, and smell, and taste this red, dull-sounding, 
mellow, fragrant, sweet apple. I thus gain a direct 
sense-percept. Ideas gained directly from sensations, 
immediate and revived, are direct sense-percepts. They 
are also called original sense-percepts. But my idea of 
the distance across the river involves judgment and 
experience, as well as sensation, and is an indirect sense- 
percept. I hear sounds in a distant room which I know 
are caused by a piano. The blind substitute touch and 
hearing for sight. We learn by experience to know 
the presence of musk by the peculiar odor. By expe- 
rience we learn to locate the sense of smell in the nose. 
Ideas thus gained indirectly from sensations are indi- 
rect sense-percepts. 



SENSE-PERCEPTIOK 



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66 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Growth of Sense-Perception. — As matter is endowed 
with the force of gravity, so mind is endowed with the 
power of sense-perception. Infants, idiots, and even 
the lowest orders of animals give indications of possess- 
ing rudimentary sense-perception. Your observation 
satisfies you that sense-perceiving is one of your first 
mental activities. Until awakened by sensations, the 
soul in all its embryonic powers seems dormant. Is it ? 
Who can tell? Life is the deepest of all mysteries. 
The beginnings of soul-activity are shrouded from mor- 
tal view. One fact is now unquestioned : an infant is 
endowed with capabilities, but not with ideas. All ideas 
are acquired. In early infancy the babe begins to take 
notice. Slowly the child gains the power to form ideas 
out of sensations. These imperfect early notions grow 
more and more distinct, and the little one learns to use 
words as the signs of ideas. "We usually find children 
under two years of age actively exploring the material 
world. But sense-perception does not seem to reach 
its greatest activity much before the fourteenth year. 
Between the ninth and fourteenth years this power 
seems to reach its full vigor. In boyhood and girlhood 
the sense-world fills the cup of joy to the brim. After 
that, sense-perception is kept vigorous by well-directed 
activity, but ceases to be the end of effort. It now 
becomes a means to higher ends. 

Education of Sense-Perception.* — That we may mas- 
ter the outer world, we are endowed with sense-percep- 
tion. The infant makes feeble efforts; the child be- 
comes more and more capable ; the boy masters in a 
good degree objective nature ; the youth seeks to mas- 

* See "Education of Sense-Perception," "Applied Psychology." 



SENSE-PERCEPTION. 67 

ter and classify physical phenomena, and thus becomes 
familiar with physical sciences. Development expresses 
the change from the feeble infant to the masterly youth. 
Further on, this topic is discussed from the stand-point 
of the teacher. Here we examine it briefly from the 
stand point of the student. 

1. Hygienic conditions* Mental achievement de- 
pends on the condition of the brain. Nothing is more 
certain. High success is impossible to individuals or to 
races having inferior brains. Physical elevation under- 
lies mental elevation. Perfect health gives perfect sen- 
sations. Perfect sensations condition perfect sense-per- 
cepts. Perfect sense-percepts are the basis of clear and 
vigorous thinking and efficient acting. Obedience to 
hygienic laws is therefore imperative. Brain-culture 
underlies mind-culture. 

2. Objective basis. All knowing begins with per- 
ceiving material objects. Words are signs of ideas 
already in the mind. " Blue " is empty sound to the 
blind boy; the idea "blue" is not in his mind. At- 
tempts to understand words and definitions without ideas 
are about as successful as attempts to build railroads on 
clouds. Only through the senses do we get elementary 
ideas of the world around us. Words, spoken and 
written and remembered, represent these ideas. A firm 
foundation of sense-knowledge must underlie all mental 
achievement. Grasping this truth, modern education 
strives to build on the rock of sense-experience. 

3. Objective teaching.^ " An appeal to children's own observa- 
tion is now rightly resorted to as much as possible in every branch 

* See Baldwin's "Art of School Management," p. 63. 
t Sully, " Outlines of Psychology." 



68 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

of instruction. The teaching of natural science sets out with the 
object-lesson, which in its simplest form is a mere exercise of the 
pupils' observing powers in noting the properties of a thing. What- 
ever the difficulties of the object-lesson, nobody really doubts that 
a large amount of valuable knowledge about simple substances, as 
chalk and coal, natural forms, as those of plants and animals, as 
well as art-products, can be given to a number of children in this 
way. This first-hand knowledge of things through personal inspec- 
tion is worth far more than any second-hand account of them by 
description. While the senses may thus be appealed to in almost 
any branch of instruction, they are far more concerned in some 
departments than in others. It is now generally admitted that 
the careful and thorough study of one or more of the natural 
sciences supplies the most efficient means of educating sense-per- 
ception." 

Comparative Psychology. — The life of the brute is 

distinctly one of sensation. Acuteness of sensation 
characterizes the brute, but in the proportion that their 
sensations are strong are their perceptions weak. Mr. 
Darwin says, " Sensations brutes have, but never ideas." 
Brutes lack langunge because they have nothing to say. 
The sense-impressions of the brute are associated and 
recalled ; but can we properly call these impressions and 
^-impressions ideas? Does the brute so discriminate 
and assimilate as to gain clear-cut sense-percepts ? We 
can not so think. The brute perceives, but its percepts 
are something lower than ideas. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — In the mental economy, what is the office of atten- 
tion ? of instinct ? of sensation 1 Give the distinction between sen- 
sorium and motorium. Define soul, psychology. Etc. 

Give the meaning of sense-perception. What other names are 
applied to this faculty 1 Give the meaning of each name. Why is 
sense-perception preferred % 



SENSE-PERCEPTION. (J9 

Give the meaning of sensation. Draw a picture of the auditory 
apparatus and explain auditory sensation. Are sensations the basis 
of all knowing ? 

Analyze two of your acts of sense-perception, giving the four 
facts you discover. Why are these called elements of sense-percep- 
tion ? 

Define faculty. Are power, capability, and faculty synonyms ? 
What is the office of sense-perception ? How do sensation and sense- 
perception differ? What do you call your ideas gained through 
sense-perception ? 

Name the three characteristics of sense-perception. What do 
you mean by characteristics ? by intuitive ? by concrete ? 

State and explain the author's definition of sense-perception ; 
your definition ; Sully's definition ; McCosh's definition. 

What do you mean by sense-percepts? Illustrate. Give and 
explain the two peculiarities of a sense-percept. Out of what do 
you make sense-percepts ? Turn to diagram and cuts on pages 45, 
46, 48, and show how we gain optic percepts, auditory percepts, and 
tactile percepts. 

Give the distinction between a direct and an indirect sense-per- 
cept. What is understood by substitution ? Place the diagram on 
the board and explain the mechanism and products of sense-percep- 
tion. 

Trace the growth of sense-perception. What does development 
express? Give hygienic conditions of sense-development. Tell 
about the objective basis. What does Sully say about objective 
teaching ? 

Which of the senses seem to involve all the others ? 

Which of the senses are active in the dark % 

Do our senses, or our perceptions, give us complete ideas of 
things? 

Are our senses reliable ? State your arguments, pro or con. 

Does the child generally apply one or more senses to an object ? 

Does he exercise the faculty of perception before coming to 
school ? 

Letter. — You may now give your friend your ideas about sense- 
perception. Try hard to make each point clear to him. Present the 
plain facts, as you understand them, and illustrate from your own 
experience. 



70 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Topical Analysis of Chapter VI.— Sense- 
perception. 

I. Names. 

Sense-perception and sense-intuition. 
Outer-pereeption and external-perception. 
Objective-perception and perception. 
II. Elements of Sense-perceiving. 

Sensations. Perceiving. 

Recalled experiences. Self-perceiving. 

III. Office of Sense-perception. 

To ideate sensations. 

IV. Characteristics. 

Acts intuitively. Limited to material objects. 

Gains concrete ideas. 
V. Definitions. 

Author's definition. Various definitions. 

Original definition. 
VI. Kinds of Sense-percepts. 

Direct sense-percepts. Substituted sense-percepts. 

Indirect sense-percepts. 
VII. Education of Sense-perception. 

Stages of growth. Objective basis. 

Hygienic conditions. Objective teaching. 

VIII. Laws of Sense-perception Growth. 

A good brain conditions the growth of sense-perception. 
Well-directed effort in acquiring sense-knowledge devel- 
ops sense-perception. 
Objective work educates sense-perception. 
IX. Comparative Psychology. 

Brutes perceive. Brutes do not have ideas. 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 71 

CHAPTER VII. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OK SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 

By this is meant the power to perceive self-acting. 
We live in a wonder-world. Beneath us, around us, 
above us, are the earth and the heavens with their va- 
ried tenantry. From this outer world come to us, vi- 
brating through the sensor lines, marvelous messages. 
Light flashes along the optic line, and I behold a world of 
color, form, and beauty. Sound-waves vibrate through 
the auditory line, and I live in a world of speech and 
song. Flavor and odor- waves come to me, and I live in a 
world of grateful food and sweet odors. Touch moves 
his magic wand, and I am gratified by balmy breezes. 
Endowed with sense-perception, I stand face to face 
with the outer world. 

We perceive also an inner world, and find it like- 
wise infinitely wonderful. This new world is called 
the world of mind. Self imagines, sympathizes, wills. 
The soul perceives itself perceiving, reasoning, choos- 
ing. The capability to perceive self acting is called 
conscious-perception. Endowed with this power, I 
stand face to face with the inner world. This power is 
designated by various 

Conscious-Perception. 
Conscious-Intuition, 
Self-Consciousness. 
Names. — -< Consciousness. 

Inner-Perception. 
Subjective-Perception. 
Ap-Perception, or Internal Vision. 



72 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Inner-perception and outer-perception, subjective- 
perception and objective-perception, are significant and 
corresponding terms. As all perceiving is intuitive, we 
call the power of immediate insight into the mind- 
world conscious-intuition, just as we call the power of 
direct insight into the matter-world sense-intuition. 
Consciousness and self-consciousness, however, are the 
commonly accepted names of this faculty. 

Acts of Self-Consciousness analyzed. — We look with- 
in and see self at work. I perceive myself observing 
the evening star. I perceive myself grieving over the 
loved and lost. I perceive myself resolving to work 
more systematically. The percei ving of self as beholding, 
grieving, resolving, is an act of self-consciousness. In such 
acts we discover the elements of an act of consciousness. 

1. Mental phenomena. Mind is self-acting and al- 
ways acting. As mental acts appear — are perceived by 
the soul— they are called mental phenomena. The ex- 
pression, mental phenomena, includes all knowing, feel- 
ing, and willing of which the soul is conscious. Where 
there are no mental acts, there can be no consciousness. 

2. Self -consciousness. There never can be an ap- 
pearance unless some thing appears. Intuitively we 
perceive substance underlying phenomena. You taste 
the sweet apple, not abstract sweetness. You see the 
beautiful picture, not abstract beauty. You perceive 
intuitively physical substance having physical powers or 
properties. So you perceive yourself thinking ; you do 
not perceive abstract thought. You perceive yourself 
rejoicing, not abstract joy. Intuitively you perceive 
self exerting mental power. As you perceive yourself 
acting, you are self-conscious. 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. ?3 

3. Conscious-percepts. As ideas gained through the 
senses are called sense-percepts, so ideas gained through 
consciousness are called conscious-percepts. Through 
consciousness, directly or indirectly, self gains its ele- 
mentary knowledge of the inner world. A being not 
endowed with consciousness would have no inner world. 
By analyzing your own conscious acts, you will gain an 
insight into the mind-world. Of what are you con- 
scious % What is it that is conscious % What are the 
products of consciousness ? How do you know the dis- 
tinction between sensation and perception ? between de- 
sire and will % 

Office of Consciousness. — Mind is self-acting. A fac- 
ulty is a mode of self-activity, and is merely a power or 
capability of the mind. The office of a faculty is its 
function in the mental economy. Function, office, work, 
are synonymous terms. Self as consciousness perceives 
liimself acting ; internal vision is the office of conscious- 
ness. The work of this faculty will be better under- 
stood by a more minute examination : 

1. Self, as consciousness, intuitively knows his own 
acts as his. I know, I feel, I will, and I know that 
these are my acts. As outer-perception, self knows im- 
mediately the outer world. As inner-perception, self 
knows immediately the inner world. 

2. Self as consciousness, perceives himself knowing, 
feeling, willing. We behold ourselves choosing, enjoy- 
ing, thinking. We gaze directly upon self acting. Con- 
sciousness opens to us the inner world. 

3. Self, as consciousness, unitizes his experiences. 
Inner-perception performs an office in our mental econ- 
omy similar to that of the connective tissue in our 



71 ELEMENT Ml Y PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

physical economy. The one gives unity to our bodies, 
the other to our mental acts.* The experiences of a 
long and eventful life are woven into one marvelous 
web. Consciousness gives unity to mental activity and 
mental achievement. 

Characteristics of Consciousness. — The soul is en- 
dowed with the capacity to perceive itself remem- 
bering, repining, resolving. "What peculiar features 
mark this marvelous power? How do we distin- 
guish self-consciousness from other mental capabili- 
ties? 

1. Self, as consciousness, beholds himself acting. 
Like sense-knowing, conscious-knowing is intuitive. We 
have direct insight into the workings of our own minds. 
Consciousness is the mind's eye, or, as Wundt terms it, 
internal vision. 

2. Certainty characterizes conscious-knowing. I 
know that I feel disappointed. I know that I intended 
to tell the truth. I know that I see the setting sun. I 
can not be mistaken. The testimony of consciousness 
is final. I know ends controversy. Consciousness is in- 
fallible. 

3. Consciousness attends all our distinct mental acts. 
In this particular, consciousness resembles attention and 
memory, but differs from all the other faculties. "When- 
ever a thought, a feeling, or a purpose stirs a soul, con- 
sciousness is there. Waking or sleeping, self seems to 
be ever acting and ever conscious. Inner-perception, it 
is certain, accompanies all distinct mental acts. An act 
that does not occur in the field of consciousness is not a 
distinct mental act. 

* Hopkins, 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. ?5 

What shall we call the operations that seem to be constantly go- 
ing on in the secret laboratory of the mind ? Is it true that the soul 
in its secret chambers prepares material for its conscious acts? Does 
the conscious spring from the unconscious ? Is it possible for science 
to explore the hidden springs of mental life ? 

4. I am conscious of actual and present mental acts 
only. I am conscious that I now remember my mother's 
advice, I am conscious of my present determination to 
study geology next year; but I am not conscious of 
past or future experiences, or of ideas not now in my 
mind. "We are conscious of our representations and 
determinations ; they are present mental acts. I am 
conscious of actual and present mental acts only. 

Self-Consciousness defined. — The soul perceives itself 
acting. We intuitively behold the inner world. We 
know ourselves knowing, feeling, and willing. We are 
endowed with the power of direct insight into the mind- 
world : 

1 . Self- consciousness is the capability to perceive self 
acting. Consciousness is being aware of mental activity. 
In psychology, consciousness is commonly used in the 
same sense as self -consciousness. Self-consciousness is be- 
ing aware of self acting ; the brute is not self-conscious. 

2. Original. Embody your notion of self -conscious- 
ness. What does consciousness mean to you % Have 
you earnestly watched the workings of your own mind ? 
Are your notions of self-consciousness clear? Unless 
you see for yourself, books and teachers will not avail. 

3. Various Definitions. — McCosh : Self-consciousness is the power 
to know self in his present state as acting and being acted on. 
Hamilton: Self -consciousness is the power by which we apprehend 
the phenomena of the inner world. Porter : Consciousness is ths 
power by which the soul knows its own acts and states. Schuyler : 

7 



Y6 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Consciousness is the capability of knowing our psychical acts and 
states. Mahan : Consciousness is the faculty by which we perceive 
the operations and states of the mind itself. White : Consciousness 
is the power of the soul to know self acting. Wundt : Conscious- 
ness, or inner vision, is the capability that unites all psychical 
activity. 

Conscious-Percepts. — We gain our elementary ideas 
immediately ; hence we call these ideas intuitions, or 
percepts. Self, as sense-perception, gains sense-percepts ; 
self, as conscious-perception, gains conscious-percepts. 
As sense-perception, we know directly the properties of 
matter ; as conscious-perception, we know directly self 
acting. 

1. Conscious-percepts are concrete notions of mental 
acts. I was conscious of seeing Mount Washington. I 
am conscious of remembering that I saw Mount Wash- 
ington. In this case I perceive self remembering, not 
abstract memory. I gain the concrete notion, this 
memory, which I term a conscious-percept. 

2. Conscious-percepts are individual notions of 
mental acts. I am conscious of this feeling, not of 
feeling in general ; of this judgment, not of judgment 
in general. I am conscious of self performing a single 
act. The individual idea thus gained is a conscious- 
percept. I feel hopeful ; the idea, this hoping, is a 
conscious-percept. I choose peace ; the idea, this choos- 
ing, is a conscious-percept. I judge that man is mortal ; 
the idea, this judging, is a conscious percept. This list 
may be extended without limit. 

3. A conscious-percept is a concrete notion of an 
individual mental act. Take away sense-perception, 
and the outer world would be a blank. Take away 
self-consciousness, and even the existence of an inner 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 77 

world would be unknown. Our simple cognitions of 
ourselves knowing, feeling, and willing, are conscious- 
percepts. Suck knowledge is called self-knowledge. 

Attention, Consciousness, Memory. — I attend, am con- 
scious, and remember. Self, as attention, concentrates 
his efforts upon the theorem ; self, as thought, discerns 
that three points not in the same straight line determine 
a circle ; self, as memory, distinctly recalls the theorem ; 
and self, as consciousness, perceives himself doing these 
things. I am fully conscious when I give complete 
attention, and I then remember distinctly. When I 
give little attention, I am dimly conscious, and I re- 
member indistinctly. Where there is no attention, there 
can be no consciousness. Where there is no conscious- 
ness, there can be no recollection. You are absorbed in 
your work ; the clock strikes. As you were not con- 
scious of hearing it strike, you can not remember hear- 
ing it strike. Because attention, consciousness, and 
memory are thus interdependent, some writers con- 
found these faculties. But it would be as reasonable, 
in my judgment, to confound the digestive, circula- 
tory, and respiratory organs of the body. JSTo soul- 
energies are more distinct. Self, as attention, concen- 
trates his efforts ; self, as consciousness, perceives self 
acting ; self, as memory, recalls his past experiences. 

Growth of Self-Consciousness. — The child-world is 
the outer world. Outer-perception, the power to mas- 
ter the outer world, is now most active. Object-lessons 
intensely interest the little ones. The child is dimly 
conscious. The little one attends feebly, and hence 
consciousness and memory are indistinct. As the child 
learns to attend more closely, consciousness and memory 



78 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

increase in distinctness. How early children begin to be 
conscious we do not know. During the third year the 
child begins to use intelligently 7, me, my. Before the 
fifth year few children give conclusive indications of clear 
self-consciousness. But boys and girls are very positive 
as to objective knowing. John sees the horse black, and 
he knows that the horse is black because he sees him 
black. In youth, self -consciousness becomes fully active. 
Education of Consciousness.* — As consciousness enters 
into all our knowing, feeling, and willing, it develops 
incidentally as our other powers develop. The growth 
of consciousness, up to fourteen, is promoted chiefly by 
incidental effort. Up to this age the outer world, for 
the most part, absorbs attention and effort. The inner 
world is still a mystic realm. But the youth begins to 
feel a longing to explore the mind- world. Now is the 
time for direct and systematic culture of consciousness. 
We do not find it easy at first to examine mental phe- 
nomena. In fact, we meet with difficulties at every 
step ; but, through patient effort, we learn to conquer. 

1. We tread the inner courts alone. Hundreds may 
observe the eclipse of the sun. The mistakes of some 
may be corrected by the keener scrutiny of others. Not 
so in the soul-world. I alone perceive my mental acts. 
I need to repeat the act many times, to guard against 
erroneous inferences. 

2. We are conscious of mental phenomena hut for 
an instant. Physical phenomena stay with us, and we 
can conquer the material world at our leisure. Mental 
phenomena linger but an instant. To avoid mistakes 

* See " Education of Consciousness," " Applied Psychology and 
Teaching." 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 79 

we must repeat the act, and recall in memory the phe- 
nomena. 

3. Young persons feel like strangers when they 
enter the inner world. Their young lives have been 
spent in the world of sense. Few have ever lingered 
for an horn' in soul-land. When they enter, every- 
thing seems new, and their inferences are liable to be 
far from the truth : " I never was so happy ! " You 
are conscious of feeling happy, but the inference may 
be false. Often and often you may have felt happier. 
You will constantly mix inference and consciousness. 
Consciousness, but not inference, is infallible. By in- 
specting mental phenomena with the same care that 
you have inspected physical phenomena, you will de- 
velop your power of inner- vision. 

Comparative Psychology. — All beings endowed with 
intelligence are endowed with some degree of conscious- 
ness. The degree of consciousness increases as intelli- 
gence increases. But no brute gives evidence of dis- 
tinct self-consciousness. The horse, in some degree, is 
conscious of knowing, feeling, and acting ; but not of 
self as acting. No brute can say, "I am, I think, I 
choose." Only rational beings are self-conscious persons. 

Clear Consciousness, Obscure Consciousness, and Non- 
Consciousness. — Your consciousness may be clear as the 
sunlight, or it may grow dimmer and dimmer until it 
is lost in the darkness of unconsciousness. You look 
without. You see clearly the lofty pine ; you see more 
or less distinctly the trees near it ; but more distant 
trees fade into obscurity. You look within. You are 
clearly conscious of your deep sorrow. Your grief 
stands out in the field of consciousness like the lofty 



80 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

pine in the forest. Flitting Lopes and fears and desires 
appear like shadows, and fade into unconsciousness. 

1. Clear self -consciousness. Everything appears in 
the light. The soul perceives itself thinking, grieving, 
determining. The mind intuitively knows itself acting. 
This is self-consciousness. In this sense it is used in 
psychology and literature as well as in common life. 
This is consciousness as you define it, human-conscious- 
ness, self-consciousness. 

2. Sub-consciousness is obscure consciousness. It is 
by some termed semi-consciousness. However desig- 
nated, indistinct consciousness is implied. The orator 
is conscious only of the thought he is uttering, but back 
in the misty chamber of sub-consciousness are many 
thoughts struggling into consciousness. "Webster tells 
us that, when he was preparing his reply to Hayne, 
burning thoughts like clusters of stars crowded for utter- 
ance. This shadowy region may be called the ante- 
chamber of consciousness. But, even in this mystic 
chamber, the soul seems to dimly perceive itself working. 

3. Unconsciousness is utter blankness. Imagine self 
absolutely dormant — no knowing, no feeling, no will- 
ing ; this is unconsciousness. Non-consciousness means 
that phenomena do not appear to the conscious soul. I 
am non-conscious of your thoughts or feelings or pur- 
poses, or of my own mental operations that are supposed 
to occur in the hidden laboratory of thought. 

Unconscious Cerebration. — " Nothing could be more grossly un- 
scientific than the famous remark of Cabanis, that the brain secretes 
thought as the liver secretes bile. It is not even correct to say that 
thought goes on in the brain. What goes on in the brain is an 
amazingly complex series of molecular movements, with which 
thought and feeling are in some unknown way correlated, not as 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF -CONSCIOUSNESS. 81 

effects or as causes, but as concomitants. By no possibility can 
thought and feeling be in any sense the products of matter. Un- 
conscious cerebration is a fiction of a false theory." * Self may do 
work of which he is dimly conscious, but that a material brain 
reaches conclusions and makes rational choices is simply inconceiva- 
ble. That the mind is self-acting in all its powers is a stupendous 
fact. That it is ever consciously active in some degree, 1 do not 
doubt; but is the soul distinctly conscious of all its workings? No 
one thinks so. Does the mind carry on lines of work of which it is 
itself unconscious? Let Dr. McCosh answer: 

Unconscious Mental Action. — " It was an opinion entertained by 
Leibnitz, and held by many since his time, that we are unconscious 
of many of our mental operations. They point to acts of mind 
which have left effects behind them, but of which we have not the 
dimmest recollection. We are sure that we must have issued a 
great many volitions in passing from one place to another, but after 
they are over we can not recollect one of them. The question arises, 
How are we to account for such a phenomenon ? I believe it can 
all be explained by the ordinary laws of mind, without our call- 
ing in such an anomalous principle as unconscious mental action. 
I hold that we were conscious of the acts at the time, but that 
they were not retained, as there was nothing to fix them in the 
memory." 

Here is sunlight clearness. Here is the granite. 
Some profound thinkers, however, take a widely differ- 
ent view. Wundt is easily the master-mind among 
physiological psychologists. His views in brief will 
interest even beginners. No one needs to wander off 
and lose himself in the imaginary mystic chambers of 
the unconscious. You can afford to leave to daring 
speculators the exploration of the mysterious realms of 
the unconscious, the hidden springs of mental life, and 
the unknown laboratories of the soul. In the following 
paragraph, Wundt's ap-perception is McCosh's self-con- 
sciousness and our conscious-perception : 

* John Fiske. 



82 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

The Unconscious conditions the Conscious. — " Physiological psy- 
chology starts with physiological facts and seeks to discover the 
psychological facts which are connected with them. It begins with- 
out and seeks to penetrate within by varying the external condi- 
tions of internal phenomena. A mind is a thing that reasons. A 
faculty is a distinct mode of psychical activity. Consciousness is 
the faculty of internal vision, and the point of clear consciousness 
may be called ap -perception. Ap-perception, or the consciousness 
of perceiving external objects, takes place in the frontal regions of 
the brain. Ap-perception is the internal activity that unitizes our 
experiences. But the agent that is conscious knows only results 
worked out in the unknown laboratory of the unconscious. In the 
hidden foundations and springs of mental life take place the impor- 
tant mental operations which fit things to appear in the field of 
consciousness. The conscious is always conditioned upon the un- 
conscious." 

Self-Consciousness and Physiological Psychology. — " Phenomena," 
says Lotze, " imply things which appear and a self-conscious being 
to whom they appear. The unitizing function of consciousness is 
an incontrovertible fact, absolutely inexplicable on any physiological 
hypotheses." " The scope of physiological psychology is necessarily 
limited to bodily functions and the physical concomitants of mental 
actions." " A psychology without a soul," at its best, has " the brain 
secreting thought just as the liver secretes bile." From this stand- 
point, the existence of a self-conscious soul is a metaphysical assump- 
tion, and self-activity is inconceivable. Man is merely a mechanism, 
and mind a mode of motion. 

The Inner-Sense. — " We have the power," says President Hop- 
kins, " of knowing immediately the processes and products of our 
own minds. Through this we not only know ourselves but also our 
fellow-men. That this knowledge is immediate all agree. Inner- 
sense is the best name for this power, as it corresponds with outer- 
sense. But, call this power what you may, we have revealed through 
it an inner world more wonderful even than that which is without — 
a world of intelligence, of comprehension, of feeling, of will, of per- 
sonality, and of moral instead of physical law. It is a world whose 
phenomena we can study and arrange as we do those of the external 
world; but, as in the external world, the phenomena themselves 
must be immediately given. We must in some way intuitively and 
necessarily know them to be." 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION, OR SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS. 83 



SUGGESTIVE STUD Y- HINTS. 

Review.— Write out a topical analysis of sense-perception. Dis- 
cuss by topics. How do messages pass between the outer and the 
inner world I Define mind, faculty, sense-perception. Etc. 

What is meant by consciousness ? Tell what comes to us from 
the wonder- world around us? What do you mean by the inner 
world ? 

What power enables us to look directly into the inner world ? 
Explain the meaning of each name given to this faculty. Which 
name do you prefer ? Why ? 

Analyze two of your acts of consciousness. Give the three great 
facts you discover. Look once more. Are you conscious of abstract 
sadness, or of self feeling sad? What do you mean by self -con- 
sciousness? What will you call the ideas you gain through con- 
sciousness ? 

Give the office of consciousness. What does self perceive? 
What does self do with his experiences ? Illustrate by the connect- 
ive tissue. 

Name the four characteristics of consciousness. Explain 
each. 

Give the author's definition of consciousness ; your definition ; 
McCosh's definition ; Wundt's definition. 

Define conscious-percepts. Give the marks of a conscious-per- 
cept. Give the distinction between a conscious-percept and a sense- 
percept. Illustrate. 

State as clearly as you can the distinctions between attention, 
consciousness, and memory. 

Trace the growth of consciousness. Mention some of the diffi- 
culties in studying mental phenomena. 

What do you mean by clear consciousness? by sub-conscious- 
ness ? by unconsciousness ? What does Fiske say about unconscious 
cerebration? What does McCosh say about unconscious mental 
action? What does Wundt say about the unconscious ? What do 
you say ? 

Letter. — You may make a neat analysis of Chapter VII, and in- 
clude it in your letter to your friend. It will pay you to " hasten 
leisurely " here. Put in your letter what you perceive about your- 
"self. Mastery here means victory all along the line. 



84 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Topical Analysis of Chapter VII.— Self- 
consciousness. 

1. Two Worlds. 

Matter-world— Sense-perception. 
Mind-world — Conscious-perception. 

II. Names. 

Conscious-perception, or conscious-intuition, etc. 

III. Analysis of Acts of Consciousness. 

Mental phenomena. Self-knowledge. 

Self -consciousness. 

IV. Office of Self-consciousness. 

To gain self-knowledge. To know self acting. 

To unitize our experiences. 
V. Characteristics of Self-conscionsness. 

Sees self acting. Enters into all knowing. 

Gives certainty. Is present knowing. 

VI. Definitions of Self-consciousness. 

Author's definition. McCosh's definition, 

VII. Conscious-percepts. 

Concrete notions of mental Individual notions, 
acts. Definition. 

VIII. Attention, Consciousness, and Memory. 

Office of each. Confusion inexcusable. 

Each a disitnct activity. 
IX. Growth of Consciousness. 

Acts feebly in childhood. 

Reaches full activity in youth. 
X. Education of Self-consciousness. 

Incidental in childhood. Difficulties. 

Direct in youth and manhood. 
XI. Comparative Psychology. 

Brutes are not self-conscious. Man is self-conscious. 

XII. Degrees of Consciousness. 

Clear self-consciousness. Unconsciousness. 

Obscure consciousness. 
XIII. Unconscious Cerehration. 

Fiske. McCosh. Wundt. 



NOUHENAL-PERCEPTIOX, OR NOUHEXAL-INTUITION. 85 

CHAPTER VIII. 

NOUMENAL-PEECEPTIOISr, OK NOUMENAL-INTUITION. 

By this is meant our power to perceive necessary 
realities. The soul is endowed with the capability to 
know directly and immediately necessary realities. Our 
elementary notions of the realities that underlie phe- 
nomena are called necessary ideas. 

PERCEPTIVE KNOWING. 



3. Noumena. 

NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION— NOUMENAL-PERCEPTS. 



2. Mental Phenomena. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION— CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTS. 



1. Physical Phenomena. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION— SENSE-PERCEPTS. 



We tind ourselves endowed with three perceptive 
faculties giving us direct insight into the three element- 
ary worlds. Sense-perception and consciousness are our 
powers to gain immediate knowledge of the two phe- 
nomenal worlds. Noumenal-perception is our power to 
intuitively behold the noumenal world. This power is 
known by the following and still other 

f Noumenal-Perception. 

N J Noumenal-Intuition, or Intuition. 

| Rational-Perception, or Reason. 

V Truth-Perception, or Common-Sense. 



86 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Noumena and Phenomena. — Gold is yellow, malle- 
able, ductile ; yellow, malleable, ductile, etc., are phe- 
nomena, but the enduring substance of which we affirm 
the phenomena is called noumenon. I think ; thinking 
is phenomena, but the enduring self who thinks is called 
a noumenon. (JS T oeo, I perceive ; nous, the mind ; nou- 
meno?i, the very essence, the enduring entity, the neces- 
sary.) Noumena, the plural, is now used to include 
necessary entities and necessary relations, as matter, 
mind, space, time, causation, existence, right, beauty, 
resemblance, truth, number, and infinity. The neces- 
sary realities that underlie and condition phenomena, 
and endure unchanged through all change, are termed 
noumena. Because we can find no better expression, 
we call the power to perceive these realities noumenal- 
perception or noumenal-in tuition. Our concrete notions 
of these realities are termed necessary ideas, or noume- 
nal-percepts. 

Necessary Ideas. — The table is here and the stove is 
there. What is this in which things exist ? The child 
answers, "It's where things are." The philosopher 
calls it space. In order that things may be, space 
must be. Space is a necessary reality. Space endures 
— is noumenon and not phenomenon. Take this bar of 
iron. I find that it possesses the phenomena of exten- 
sion, divisibility, weight, porosity, compressibility, elas- 
ticity. That these properties or phenomena may be, a 
substance possessing these properties must be. Mate- 
rial substance is a necessary reality underlying physical 
phenomena. Material substance endures, is noumenon, 
and not phenomenon. In the same way we find that 
mind, time, cause, etc., are noumena and not phenom- 



NOUMENAL-PEECEPTION, OR NOCMENAL-INTUITION. 87 

ena. Our direct notions of these realities are noumenal- 
percepts. Because these ideas underlie and condition 
all other ideas, they are called necessary ideas. 

Acts of Koumenal-Perception analyzed. — I turn my 
hour-glass. My little girl patiently watches till the 
last grain of sand has fallen, and says, " Papa, it took a 
long time." Intuitively the child perceives concrete 
time. The capability to know noumena immediately is 
called noumenal-percejjiion. In the same way you may 
examine space, cause, etc., and discover for yourself the 
nature of this marvelous power. You find that you 
perceive noumena as well as phenomena. Your analy- 
sis gives the 

Conditions of knowing E"ecessary Ideas. — The apple 
falls. " What made it fall ? " asks the three-year-old 
Newton. The question involves the three conditions of 
knowing necessary truths : 

1. Objective reality. Space exists, though you may 
not perceive it. Space is. an objective reality. The 
notion, cause, would be impossible but for the object- 
ive reality of causes. Gravity is an objective real- 
ity. Time is a reality independent of self. Matter and 
mind are objective realities. We perceive necessary 
realities. 

2. Phenomena involving necessary realities. The 
falling apple involves cause. Phenomenal experience 
does not give the idea, this cause, but is necessary to the 
perception of it. Seeing the falling apple was neces- 
sary in order that Newton might perceive gravit\\ No 
one gains the idea, right, until he perceives right acts. 
Phenomena condition the perception of noumena. 
Without phenomena we can not know noumena. 



88 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

3. A capability to perceive necessary realities. A 
being not endowed with nouinenal-perception might 
know phenomena but could never cognize noumena. 
Even the little child knows at once concrete space and 
concrete cause, just as it knows color and sound and 
odor. Self, as noumenal-perception, directly beholds 
concrete necessary realities. Your analysis gives you 
also the 

Tests of Necessary Ideas. — How do we know a neces- 
sary idea ? There are four safe tests : 

1. Self "-evidence. Self stands face to face with ne- 
cessary realities. Mediate proofs are not only not need- 
ed — they are an insult to the mind. Think of attempt- 
ing to prove that something made the apple fall ! We 
know that we perceive these noumena. We do not and 
can not define our necessary ideas nor prove them. 
They are self-evident. Axioms are abstract necessary 
truths, elaborated from necessary ideas, and, like these 
ideas, are self-evident. 

2. Necessity. The mind must start with something. 
There must be primary ideas before there can be sec- 
ondary ones. Noumenal ideas must be, in order that 
phenomenal ideas may be, just as noumena must be that 
phenomena may be. Space must be, in order that ex- 
tended objects may be. Mind must be, that thought 
may be. I must perceive the necessary reality, concrete 
being, before I can say, " He is." We perceive these 
foundation ideas to be ultimate and final. We discern 
their necessity in all knowing. They are necessary 
ideas. 

3. Universality. Necessary ideas are accepted by 
all. One or more necessary ideas are present in each 



NOUMENAL-rERCErTION, OR NOUMENAL-INTUITIOX. 89 

act of the mind. Necessary ideas are the universal 
ideas that underlie and condition all other ideas. 

4. Independence. Like a chemical element, a neces- 
sary idea is ultimate. A necessary idea can not be de- 
rived from other ideas. Each necessary idea is absolute- 
ly independent of other necessary ideas. An idea that 
is self-evident, necessary, universal, and independent, is 
a necessary idea. 

Nouxnenal-Percepts are singular, concrete, necessary 
notions. Keep in mind that only our concrete notions 
are called percepts. I perceive this large tiger, but I 
do not perceive vertebrate. The notion, this tiger, is 
a sense-percept. I perceive self remembering the story 
of Tell, but I do not perceive abstract memory. The 
idea, this memory, is a conscious-percept. I perceive 
that heat causes this water to boil, but I do not perceive 
that every effect must have a cause. The idea, this cause, 
is a noumenal-percept. Sense-percepts, conscious-per- 
cepts, and noumenal-percepts, are individual concrete 
notions. We perceive the concrete, not the abstract ; 
the individual, not the general. Noumenal-percepts are 
concrete notions of necessary realities. 

We perceive the individual, not the general. I perceive this 
space, not infinite space ; this cause, not universal cause ; this time, 
not eternity; this infinity, not the unlimited. What a world of 
confusion would be avoided by heeding this plain psychological 
fact ! Noumenal-percepts are concrete notions of necessary entities 
and necessary relations. Most of the designations of these ideas are 
now merely historic. The following are some of the 

( Noumenal-Percepts, or Noumenal-Intuitions. 
i Necessary Ideas, or a priori Ideas. 



Names. — -j First Truths, or Necessary Truths, or Intuitions. 
Categorical Ideas, or Regulative Ideas. 
I Innate Ideas, or Connate Ideas. 



90 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Through the centuries these expressions have con- 
fused philosophers, but need not now confuse you. You 
tind that you are endowed with the capability to know 
intuitively substances and necessary relations. You call 
the concrete ideas thus gained noumenal-percepts, or 
nounienal-intuitions, or necessaiy ideas. Perhaps, for 
the present, it will be well to disregard the other names. 
Later you will be interested in tracing their history. 
Necessary judgments, elaborated from necessary ideas, 
are called axioms, first truths, and necessary truths. 

Necessary Realities, Necessary Ideas, Necessary Judgments. — You 
need to clearly distinguish these expressions. To help you to do 
so, this connected view is given : 

1. Necessary realities are the realities that make phenomena 
possible. Mind, matter, cause, space, time, infinity, truth, beauty, 
right, and a few other realities, are classed as necessary realities 
because they must be in order that phenomena may be. 

2. Necessary ideas are our immediate notions of necessary reali- 
ties. My notion, this space, is necessary to my knowing that the 
table is here and the stove there. My idea, this space, is a necessary 
idea. Our elementary notions of necessary realities are termed ne- 
cessary ideas because they underlie and condition all other ideas. 

3. Necessary judgments are truths elaborated from necessary 
ideas. Cold causes this water to congeal. My idea, this cause, is a 
necessary idea ; but, that every effect must have a cause, is a neces- 
sary judgment, a necessary truth. Axioms are necessary truths 
elaborated from necessary ideas. 

Tree of Eecessary Ideas.* — As the tree of life bore 
twelve kinds of fruit, so this tree bears twelve kinds of 
necessary ideas. These ideas are involved in all know- 
ing. Self, as noumenal-perception, immediately knows 
these ideas in individual and concrete cases. Self, as 
reason, infers general truths from particular truths. 

* Bascom's enumeration of necessary ideas is adopted. 



NOUMENAL-rERCEPTION, OR NOUMENAL-INTUITION. 91 




92 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Axioms are necessary truths generalized. You will 
critically apply the four tests given above, and remove 
from the tree spurious fruit. 

Build on the Rock. — Truth must be seen with sun- 
light clearness. You can afford to linger here. A few 
hours of penetrating thought may save you from a life 
of groping. - 

1. Space. I walk a mile. What is this through 
which I walk and in which all things are ? The child 
perceives the idea, where things are, and learns to call 
this reality space. As space is not a phenomenon, we 
can not gain the idea through outer or inner-perception. 
As space is elementary, we can not infer this idea from 
other ideas. Self, as noumenal-perception, knows im- 
mediately this space, and this, and this. Let us try the 
four tests : (1) I stand face to face with this space. I 
know that I perceive this space ; this is self-evidence. 
(2) That things may be, space must be. Space is a 
necessary reality. (3) I think of things as in space. 
Everything is somewhere. The space-idea pervades all 
thinking — is universal. (4-) I find it impossible to de- 
rive this idea from other ideas, just as it is impossible 
to derive gold from the baser metals. Space is a ne- 
cessary reality, and the space-idea is a necessary idea. 
Most of the axioms of geometry are intuitive truths 
generalized from space-percepts. 

2. Time. I take the train at Philadelphia and go 
to New York. I spend from breakfast to dinner with 
a friend. What passes ? " Mamma, you stayed a long 
time." The child has the idea — time. How did it gain 
this idea % You answer that the child intuitively per- 
ceives this time, and this, when its experiences involve 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTIOX, OR NOUMENAL-INTUITION. 93 

time. You reason as follows : The idea, this time, must 
be a phenomenal-percept, a specific truth under some 
general truth, or a noumenal-percept. It is not a phe- 
nomenal truth. No one claims that it is a specific idea 
under some general idea. We can not avoid the con- 
clusion : the idea, this time, is a noumenal-percept. 
Apply the four tests of necessary ideas. "What kind of 
truths are the axioms of algebra ? Is an axiom a neces- 
sary idea or a necessary truth ? 

3. Existence. The mountain is — exists. It is is 
the only affirmation applicable to everything. That 
existence is a necessary idea will be readily seen. In- 
deed, this idea seems to underlie all other ideas. Self, 
as noumenal-perception, intuitively knows things as 
existing. Prove that the notion " concrete existence " 
is a necessary idea. 

4. Right. The bad boy strikes his mother. His 
little sister says to him, " You ought not — wrong ; 
naughty." The child reads the story of the good 
Samaritan : its " bad Pharisee " and " good Samaritan " 
show that the child has the idea of right and wrong. 
In fact, whenever the child observes acts involving 
right, it at once perceives the idea of right. From 
experience and education it finds out what is right, and 
soon learns to say, " That is right." Show that the no- 
tion " concrete right " is a necessary idea. 

5. Beauty. "The babe is beautiful." The child 
perceives something pleasing in things. Before it learns 
to say " Beautiful bird ! " it knows concrete beauty. 
Self, as sense-perception, sees the yellow primrose, and, 
as noumenal-perception, knows it as beautiful. Apply 
to beauty the tests of necessary ideas. 



91 ELEMENTARY TSYCIIOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

6. Truth. The blood circulates. The earth is 
spherical. These are statements of truths, for they 
assert realities. Arnold was a traitor. This is true — it 
asserts a fact. "Washington was a traitor. This is not 
true — it asserts a falsehood. The child intuitively be- 
holds the truth-idea in individual truths. 

1. Matter. I press the table ; it resists me. I see 
that it has extension. I find that I can move it. I 
place it on the scales ; it has weight. The enduring 
thing having these attributes I learn to call matter. 
Self, as sense-perception, knows immediately physical 
phenomena. Self, as noumenal-perception, knows im- 
mediately matter — things having properties. It is self- 
evident that the substance sugar must be, in order that 
the property sweet may be. We know things as hav- 
ing attributes. I see the tree. This mental act involves 
sense-perception, for I intuitively cognize the tree as 
tall and green. It involves self-consciousness, for I 
cognize self perceiving the tall, green tree. It also in- 
volves noumenal-perception, for I intuitively cognize the 
entity, which is tall and green, as a material substance. 

8. Mind. I think, I admire, I decide. I am con- 
scious of thinking, feeling, willing. That mental acts 
may be, a mental entity must be. 

" I think we are not wholly brain, 

Magnetic mockeries ; casts in clay ; 
Let science prove we are, and then 
What matters science unto men ? " 
I know by direct insight that the noumenon underlies 
the phenomenon. The spirit entity that thinks, I in- 
tuitively know as self. I perceive self thinking, feel- 
ing, and willing. I am conscious of noumenal-intuition 



NOUHENAL-PERCEPTION, OR NOUMENAL-INTUITION. 95 

just as I am conscious of sense-intuition. " I am, there- 
fore I think," is the true psychology. " The mind," 
says Wundt, " is the entity that reasons." 

9. Cause. Why does the ball fall ? The child says, 
" Cause." Why does the clock tick ? " Cause." The 
child notices changes, and asks you, " What makes the 
changes ? " You answer, " Cause." That effects may 
be, cause must be. Causation is a necessary idea. We 
perceive concrete cause, and think the general: "Every 
effect must have a cause." The idea, this cause, is in- 
tuitive. As mind originates activity — possesses sponta- 
neity — we may say that a mind is a self-cause. The 
absolute self -cause is God. 

10. Number. Is number a necessary idea \ Try it. 
In case you remove number from the truth-tree, en- 
deavor to replace it by a genuine necessary idea. How 
will liberty do ? How do you like spontaneity ? 

11. Resemblance. The likeness in the two things 
observed is not in the one or in the other. Every case 
of comparison is but an application of the idea — resem- 
blance. As experience can not give the idea, and as it 
can not be a product of induction, we class resemblance 
as one of our necessary ideas. 

12. Infinity. Take \ = -3333333 -f ; however far 
I carry the process, I know I do not and can not reach a 
limit. I perceive this infinity. Take two parallel lines. 
I extend them two feet. They are still the same dis- 
tance apart. I have the direct insight that they would 
never meet, however far extended. Intuitively I know 
this infinity. I imagine a limit to space. What lies 
beyond % Space. Space is its own environment. Space 
is self-related. Space is limitless. Space is infinite. 



96 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Show that you intuitively know infinite time and in- 
finite cause. 

Noumenal - Perception defined. — Self, as nounaenal- 
perception, perceives necessary ideas. This is about all 
that can be said. The fact is so simple that we can find 
nothing simpler into which to resolve it. 

1. Noumenal-perception is the oriental power to gain 
intuitively concrete necessary ideas. It is understood 
that noumenal-perception is an ultimate endowment of 
the soul, and that we perceive necessary ideas only in 
the singular and in the concrete. 

2. Original. You have done your best to under- 
stand this faculty. Now embody your conclusion in a 
good definition. 

Various Definitions.* — 1. Bascom : The capability to know di- 
rectly intuitive ideas. 2. Schuyler: The power of apprehending 
necessary ideas. 3. Laws : Noumenal-intuition is the power to 
know immediately and instantly noumenal ideas. 4. Hopkins : 
The power to know immediately first ideas. 5. Porter : The 
power to acquire first ideas intuitively. 6. Hamilton : The power 
the mind has of being the native source of a priori cognitions. 7. 
White : Intuition is the power to know directly and immediately 
necessary relations ; as, space, time, being, substance, cause, de- 
sign, etc. 

Agnosticism. — To know is to be certain of something. 
No mysticism must be admitted into the operations of 

* Explanatory. — In these definitions the expression necessary truth is 
used in the sense of necessary idea. To avoid confusion we have substituted 
" ideas " for " truths " in the following definitions. A necessary truth is a 
generalization from necessary ideas. We perceive necessary ideas, and elab- 
orate them into necessary truths. The notion that these equals added to 
these give equal sums, is a necessary idea ; but the generalization that 
equals added to equals give equal sums, is a necessary truth. We gain 
necessary ideas intuitively, hut infer necessary truths. Axioms are neces- 
sary truths, not necessary ideas. The distinction is deemed important. 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION, OR NOITHENAL-INTUITION". 97 

the intellect. We begin with certainty, and not doubt. 
We know ourselves thinking and perceiving material 
objects. Not only do all men admit necessary ideas, 
but they must. Agnosticism is intellectual suicide. 
Only "cranks" deny their own existence. "We know 
matter as existing, but we also know, and this directly, 
that it has relations to other things known, that it is in 
space, and that there is causation in its action. We also 
know mind as existing, and we know it to have being, 
potency, spirituality, and relations to things." Endowed 
with intuition, we build on the rock. " Philosophy," 
says Carlyle, " can bake no bread ; but she can procure 
for us God, freedom, and immortality." Psychology 
can build no railroads, but she can give us certainty. A 
knowledge of our own capabilities renders agnosticism 
impossible. 

Growth of IToumenal-PerceptioiL — Each act of sense- 
perception involves noumenal-perception. I perceive, 
not abstract properties, but things having properties. I 
perceive, not abstract mental acts, but self knowing, 
feeling, acting. Thus it is evident that the child gains 
necessary ideas as involved in the perception of phe- 
nomena. They are seen dimly at first. While all men 
accept and act upon necessary ideas, few distinctly state 
them to themselves. No one denies his own exist- 
ence, or that he is in space, or that he grows old, but 
few grasp distinctly and fully these ideas. This power, 
though early active, is probably the latest of all the fac- 
ulties in reaching full activity and development. These 
necessary or ultimate ideas seem to develop in the fol- 
lowing order: Oar first noumenal-percepts are concrete 
notions of objective realities. We know things having 



98 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

properties. The ideas, time and space, appear in con- 
nection with our ideas of things. Next we observe 
change, and directly gain the cause-idea. Next we gain 
the idea — law — through our knowledge of the uniform 
ways in which energies act. Finally, we gain the idea — 
this unity — from our knowledge of the co-ordination of 
things. Thus, step by step, we advance to the concep- 
tion of the universe as the perfect unity. Tennyson, 
holding the tiny flowering plant, well expresses this idea : 
" I pluck you out of the crannies ; 
Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, 
Little flower — hut if I could understand 
What you are, root and all, all in all, 
I should know what God and man is." 

8UG GESTIVE STUD Y-HMTS. 

Review. — Place on the board your diagram of conscious-percep- 
tion, and also the diagram of sense-perception. Compare by topics 
with your analyses of noumenal-perception. 

What is meant by noumenal-perception ? by noumena ? 

Mention the names applied to noumenal-perception. Which 
name do you prefer? Why ? Give the distinction between noumena 
and phenomena. Illustrate. Give the etymology of noumenon and 
the meaning of noumena. Why do we use this hard word ? 

What do you mean by necessary ideas ? Name several necessary 
ideas. Prove that time is a necessary idea. 

Analyze two of your acts of noumenal-perception. What do 
you discover ? 

Name the three conditions of cognizing necessary ideas. State 
the first test of a necessary idea. Illustrate. Give the second test 
and illustrate. Give the third ; the fourth. 

What is a noumenal-percept ? Are percepts general or particu- 
lar notions? Illustrate. Give some of the names applied to nou- 
menal percepts. Explain. Criticise the expression " innate ideas." 
Are powers innate % Are all ideas acquired ? 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION, OR NOUMENAL-INTUITION. 99 

Place the tree of necessary ideas on the board. Test the fruit. 
State the author's definition of noumenal-perception ; your definition ; 
definition of Dr. Laws ; Hamilton's definition ; White's definition. 

Show that agnosticism disappears in the light of the true psy- 
chology. What is agnosticism I Why do some persons claim to be 
agnostics f Is absolute agnosticism possible ? 

Letter. — You will need to explain and illustrate very clearly. 
Though not more difficult to understand than sense-perception, your 
friend may not be familiar with noumenal-perception, and will need 
very full explanations. 

Topical Analysis of Chapter VIII. — Noumenal- 
Perception. 

I. Position. 

3. Noumenal-perception. 
2. Conscious-perception. 
1. Sense-perception. 
II. Names. 

Noumenal-perception. Truth-perception. 

Noumenal-intuition. Intuition, common-sense, 

Rational-perception, or reason. etc. 

III. Conditions of Cognizing Noumena. 

Objective reality. Noumenal-perception. 

Phenomena. 

IV. Tests of Necessary Ideas. 

Self-evidence. Universality. 

Necessity. Independence. 

V. Nonmenal-percepts. 
Definition. 

r Singular notions. 
Marks •< Concrete notions. 

(. Notions of necessary realities. 

Names. 

Noumenal-percepts and necessary ideas. 
Noumenal-intuitions and ultimate ideas. 
Necessary truths and first truths. 
A priori ideas and intuitions. 
Innate ideas and connate ideas. 
Categorical ideas, etc. 



100 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

VI. First Troths (grouped by Bascom). 

Existence. 
Number. 
Resemblance. 
Space. \ f Consciousness. 

Time J Spontaneity. 

j Truth. 

Causation. ) \ Right. 

Beauty. 
The Infinite. 
VII. Noumenal-perception defined. 

Author's definition. Various definitions. 

Original definition. 

VIII. Agnosticism. 

Define. Disprove, 

IX. Growth and Development of Noumenal-perccption. 

1. Time. 2. Means. 3. Methods. 



CHAPTEB IX. 

PERCEPTIVE KNOWING — GENERAL VIEW. 

Perceptive Knowing is simply Direct Insight. — Self 
stands face to face with noumena as well as with phe- 
nomena. I do not prove to yon that the sun is bright, 
that yon despise cowards, or that something makes the 
apple fall. You know these things at once. All im- 
mediate concrete knowing is intuitive. Perceptive 
knowing is intuitive knowing, is immediate knowing, 
is presentative knowing, is simple cognition. 

( Perceptive Knowing. 

._ J Presentative Knowing. 

j Intuitive Knowing. 

V Simple Cognition. 



PERCEPTIVE KNOWING— GENERAL VIEW. 101 

The Perceptive Faculties are the Capabilities to know 
immediately. — Because we are endowed with direct in- 
sight, these powers are called intuitive faculties. As 
we acquire immediate knowledge, these are also called 
the acquisitive faculties. Because the things known are 
made present, some term these the presentative facul- 
ties. Simple cognitive powers is also a good name, as 
these faculties give us knowledge in its simplest form. 

The Perceptive Powers. 
The Intuitive Powers. 
Names. — -I The Acquisitive Powers. 
The Presentative Powers. 
I The Simple Cognitive Powers. 

We perceive Koumena as well as Phenomena. — "We 

have direct insight into the matter-world, the mind- 
world, and the world of necessary realities. "We are 
endowed with three intuitive powers, each opening to 
us a distinct world. In each perceptive act each of the 
three forms of perception supplements the others. 

{Sense-Perception. 
Conscious-Perception. 
N oumenal-Perception. 

Sense-Perception is the Capability to gain Elementary 
Sense-Knowledge. — We acquire knowledge through the 
senses. Sense-perception is the best possible name for 
this faculty. As we know at once the outer world, this 
faculty is properly called outer-perception, external-per- 
ception, and objective-perception. Perception is brief 
but indefinite. 

{Sense-Perception. Objective-Perception. 

Outer-Perception. Perception. 

External-Perception. 



102 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Consciousness is the Capability to perceive Self acting. 
■ — I have direct insight into the mind-world. I per- 
ceive myself knowing, feeling, willing. Because we 
have direct insight into the inner-world, this faculty is 
called inner-perception. As we know immediately men- 
tal phenomena, this power is also termed conscious-per- 
ception and conscious-intuition. The mind looks on 
itself working, hence Kant named this capability ap- 
perception. McCosh calls it self-consciousness. To 
correspond with objective-perception, some name it 
subjective-perception. Each name has its merits, but 
self-consciousness and conscious-perception are preferred. 

' Consciousness and Conscious-Perception. 

Inner-Perception. 

Self-Consciousness. 

Conscious- Intuition. 

Ap-Perception. 
,. Subjective-Perception. 

Noumenal-Perception is the Capability to know intui- 
tively Necessary Realities. — Noumena means the ulti- 
mate and the necessary. Such ultimate realities as space, 
time, cause, are noumena. " Noumenon," says Herbert 
Spencer, "is the antithesis of phenomenon. Appear- 
ance without reality is unthinkable. ]SToumenon is ne- 
cessary actuality." Because we have direct insight into 
the necessary truth-world, this faculty is called truth- 
perception. As we know at once necessary ideas, some 
call this power intuition, or rational-intuition. In this 
sense, intuition is indefinite and misleading. Each per- 
ceptive faculty is an intuitive faculty. Sense-intuition, 
conscious-intuition, and noumenal-in tuition, are correct 
and definite names. This faculty is also called reason 



Names.- 



PERCEPTIVE KNOWING— GENERAL VIEW. 103 

and rational-perception, because rational beings alone 
perceive necessary realities. But, as reason is now al- 
most uniformly used to designate the power of infer- 
ence, these names are objectionable. Noumenal-percep- 
tion and noumenal-intuition are unobjectionable. 

( Noumenal-Perception. 
J Noumenal-intuition and Intuition. 
j Truth-Perception. 
v. Rational-Perception and Reason. 

Products of Perceptive Knowing. — Self gains some 
ideas at once. These singular, concrete ideas are per- 
cepts. As we gain these ideas by direct insight, they 
are called intuitions. As these ideas are the elements 
of all knowing, they are simple cognitions. 

{Percepts. 
Intuitions. 
Simple Cognitions. 

Classes of Percepts. — A mind acts as a unit. Each 
mental power is supplemented by all the other powers 
of the soul. A mental product results from self acting 
in all his capabilities. We are conscious of our noume- 
nal as well as of our phenomenal perceiving. Through 
phenomena we perceive noumena, and we perceive nou- 
mena as necessary to phenomena. Still, our elementary 
ideas form these well-marked groups. Those gained 
through the senses are sense-ideas, or sense-percej)ts ; 
those gained through consciousness are conscious-ideas, 
or conscious-percepts ; and those gained through nou- 
menal-perception are noumenal-ideas, or noumenal-per- 

cepts. 

Sense-Percepts. 
Percepts. — «| Conscious-Percepts. 

Necessary Truths. 



104: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

p, , j Sense-Intuitions. 

Intuitions.— 4 1 Conscious-Intuitions. 



Noumenal — Necessary Ideas. 
1„ Sense-percepts are simple cognitions of material 
objects. We perceive material objects as external, ex- 
tended, and as exerting force. 

2. Conscious-percepts are simple cognitions of self 
acting. We perceive self existing and exerting power. 

3. JVoumenal-percepts are simple cognitions of ne- 
cessary realities. We perceive necessary entities and 
necessary relations. Our concrete notions of these ne- 
cessary realities gained by direct-insight are termed nou- 
menal-percepts. Nothing could be plainer. Strange, 
that antiquated darkness and misleading theories should 
so long hide the truth ! But modern psychologists have 
brushed away the cobwebs. It is the old story of Co- 
lumbus and the egg. 

S UG GESTI VE STUD 7-HINTS. 

Place the diagrams of sense-perception, conscious-perception, 
and noumenal-perception side by side on a sheet of paper, or on 
blackboards. Compare them topic by topic. 

With the diagrams before you, study Chapter IX. Do not for a 
moment lose sight of the fact that self acts as a unit. Dr. Laws in- 
sists that the intuitive faculty is simple in its nature but complex in 
its functions, and presents it as follows : 

{t,, , T , ... ( Sense-Perception. 

Phenomenai-Intuition. ■< . l 

( Consciousness. 
Noum enal-Intuition. 
Some writers claim that sense-perception and consciousness give us 
noumenal as well as phenomenal percepts. To me it seems every 
way better to treat each perceptive function as a distinct faculty. 

Eeferences. — Those wishing fuller information are referred to 
Porter's "Human Intellect"; Sully's "Psychology"; McCosh's 
" Pysehology " ; Hopkins's "Outline Study of Man"; Bascom's 
" Science of Mind," etc. 



PART III. 
THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 



CHAPTER X.— Memory. 
XL — Phantasy. 
XII. — Imagination. 
XIII. — Representation. — General View. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL PYRAMID. 



d THE WILL 
y I POWERS. 



THE 
EMOTIONS. 



W I PHYSICAL 
FEELINGS. 



THE 



O 
I, 



THE 
THINKING 
POWERS. 



THE 

/REPRESENT-J 
ATIVE 

POWERS. 



IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 



IDEALS. 
I PHANTASMS.! 



MEMORIES. 



THE 

JPERCEPTIVE| 

POWERS, 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 



iNOUMENAL- 
PERCEPTS. 

I CONSCIOUS^ 
PERCEPTS. 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS, 



THIRD PART. 

THE REPRESENTATIVE POWERS. 



By these we mean our capabilities to represent our 
experiences in old or new forms. JSTow you stand be- 
neath the fragrant orange-tree, and see and handle and 
smell and taste its delicious fruit. You present, or make 
present, to yourself the orange-tree, with its environ- 
ments. Weeks have passed. An orange-blossom in 
a bouquet suggests that orange-tree. You see yourself 
again standing beneath the tree and enjoying its fra- 
grant fruit. You represent, or make present again, 
to yourself the orange-tree. The power to represent 
things to yourself just as you presented them the first 
time is called memory. You fall asleep. You see your- 
self standing beneath an orange-tree. The fruit is pure 
gold. You fill your basket with gold oranges, and 
dream of boundless wealth. The picture seems to you 
an objective reality. The power thus spontaneously to 
represent things to yourself, changed but seeming to 
be realities, is called phantasy. You plan an orange- 
grove. All the rows are circles. In the midst you 
place a lovely cottage for yourself, "with one fair 
spirit for your minister." The power to thus inten- 



108 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION, 

tionally represent your experiences, modified into ideals, 
is called imagination. 

{Memory. 
Phantasy. 
Imagination. 

You recall the landscape just as you saw it ; self, 
as memory, recalls. You drift into dream-land, linking 
fancy unto fancy ; self, as phantasy, builds air-castles. 
You plan an ideal cottage; self, as imagination, creates 
ideals. Our representative faculties are our powers to 
reproduce and change the forms of our acquisitions. 



CHAPTER X. 

MEMORY. 

By this is meant the power to reproduce our acqui- 
sitions just as we experienced them. Years ago you 
saw an eclipse of the sun. Now you reproduce the 
scene exactly as you perceived it. You say you remem- 
ber. Yesterday you felt angry. You are now conscious 
of the fact that you were angry, and of the insulting 
note that occasioned your anger. You recall your past 
experience. 

Acts of Memory analyzed. — Some time since I at- 
tended a lecture on the solar spectrum. I now recall 
the spectrum as it appeared on the canvas. I recall 
the lecturer, and myself enjoying the lecture. The 
whole scene, just as presented, is again made present-— 
is represented. Thus recall your visit to your child- 



MEMORY. 109 

hood home ; your first teacher. What do you do when 

you remember? 

Elements of Acts of Memory. — You discover in a complete act 
of memory four elements — retention, recollection, association, and 
recognition. 

1. Self, as memory, stores his acquisitions. I know the multipli- 
cation-table. I do not keep it in consciousness, but I can recall it at 
will. This element of memory is called retention. I meet a stran- 
ger ; some resemblance calls to mind a friend. That some charac- 
teristic of that friend was retained seems a reasonable inference. 
Otherwise, how could the resemblance suggest the friend ? How 
these keys of memory are kept we have no means of knowing. The 
mind is not Plato's tablet, nor Cicero's storehouse. Neural changes, 
fleeting as the ripples on the bosom of the lake, give no hint of past 
mental acts. That self, as memory, in some unknown way retains 
so as to be able to recall his acquisitions, is all we can yet say. 

2. Self, as memory, reproduces Ms experiences. I was conscious 
of seeing General Grant. I am now conscious of recalling that ex- 
perience. Again the silent man is present. This element of mem- 
ory is termed recollection, reproduction, or remembrance. It is the 
essential element, and hence is often used as equivalent to memory. 

3. Self, as memory, restores things with their associations. The 
rose with its fragrance, the singer with the song, the lover with his 
love, Grant with his staff, are represented just as they were pre- 
sented. The magic changes wrought by phantasy and imagination 
are absolutely distinct from the work of memory. Here past expe- 
riences with all the objective conditions are represented without 
change. This element of memory is called association, because 
things with their associations are made again present. 

4. Self, as memory, identifies memories and experiences. I recall 
my visit to Niagara ; I recognize the remembrance as a former expe- 
rience. I meet an acquaintance ; I recognize him. This element of 
memory is called recognition. The soul retains the keys to its ac- 
quisitions. Present mental acts, by means of these keys, restore the 
past. The object, with its environments, is represented. Finally, 
the remembrances are recognized as identical with former expe- 
riences. The act of memory is complete. You may distinguish the 
four elements of memory in the following lines : 

" How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
When fond recollection (represents them to view !" 



HO ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Office of Memory. — Self, as memory, stores, repro- 
duces, and recognizes his experiences, This, in the 
mental economy, is the sole function of memory. 
What was originally present in consciousness is made 
present again — is represented. Memory is the mind 
remembering past experiences. Retention, association, 
and recognition are incident to complete reproduction, 
and are merely elements of memory. 

It is the function of memory to reproduce all forms of knowl- 
edge, and to know the representations as former acquisitions. Mem- 
ory utilizes the results of all previous cognitions. Without mem- 
ory, we should be as oblivious of the past as we are ignorant of the 
future. 

Characteristics of Memory. — Ton can readily distin- 
guish between memory and other faculties by noting 
two marked peculiarities of this power of the soul : 

1. Self \ as memory, recalls the past. Take away 
memory, and all the past would be a blank. Memory is 
our only power to make the past reappear. 

2. Memory identifies. Memory links the present 
with the past, and thus we maintain our personal identity. 
Memory identifies recollections as former experiences. 

3. Memory enters into all mental activity . Self, as 
consciousness, unitizes all mental acts ; self, as memory, 
treasures and recalls all. Like attention and conscious- 
ness, memory enters into all knowing, all feeling, all 
willing. You attend. You perceive the coming train. 
You hasten with throbbing heart to meet a long-absent 
brother. You are conscious of each act. Years pass. 
Now you vividly represent the scene. You are now 
conscious of recalling a past experience. Thus is woven 
the web of mental life. 



MEMORY. HI 

Memory defined. — The soul is endowed with powers 
or faculties. Wundt tells us that "faculties are distinct 
modes of psychical activity." Sense-perception is self 
perceiving material things. Memory is self recalling 
past acquisitions : 

1. Memory is the power to store and reproduce expe- 
riences. We recall our acquisitions in the old forms in 
which we experienced them, and we recognize them as 
former experiences. 

2. Original. Put your conception of memory in 
your own words. Until made your own, and translated 
into your own language, the thoughts of others are 
oftener an injury than a benefit. So familiar seems to 
you the memory notion that there is danger of super- 
ficial work. 

3. Various Definitions. — Mansel : Memory is the power of the 
mind to reproduce its own acts. Schuyler : Memory is the power 
to recall previous cognitions. Bascom : Memory is the power of re- 
calling the phenomena of consciousness. McCosh : Memory is self 
remembering. White : Memory is the power to reknow objects 
previously known. Everett : Memory is the power to reproduce 
and recognize former knowledge. 

Memory-Knowledge. — The products of memory are 
called memories, recollections, remembrances. "Memo- 
ries of other days," "sweet recollections," and "kind re- 
membrances," are some of our most familiar expressions. 
Original mental products are called percepts, concepts, 
ideals, and judgments. Memory-products are termed 
rd-percepts, r<?-concepts, and re- judgments : 

1. A remembered percept is a re-percept. Yester- 
day I saw a dove. Self, as sense-perception, intuitively 
formed the percept— this dove. To-day I recall this 



112 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

percept. Again the dove is present. The idea — this 
dove — is now a remembered percept, a re-percept. 

2. A remembered concept is a re-concept. From the 
percepts, this triangle, and this, and this, I discern the 
general notion, three-angledness. I embody this abstract 
general notion or concept in the word triangle. When 
I recall the concept triangle it is a remembered concept, 
a ^-concept. 

3. Memories are intellectual j)roducts. Emotions 
and volitions are strung on ideas, as pearls on threads 
of gold. Last week a friend did me a kind act. I per- 
ceived the kind act and felt gratitude. I now recall 
that kind act, and also the fact that I felt gratitude. 
The re-percept — that kind act — occasions a feeling of 
gratitude, but it is a new feeling. We can not make 
present again past feelings or past volitions. We re- 
call intellectual products only. Memories are intellect- 
ual products. 

Experiences and Memories. — We recall our former 
experiences. Our remembrances are unmodified tran- 
scripts of our experiences. Memory represents acqui- 
sitions in the old forms of experience. Some relations, 
however, deserve careful study : 

1. Remembrances suggest but do not resemble the 
original objects. The soul creates the mental objects 
which it recalls. The landscape, the odor, the song, are 
remembered as former experiences. There is a corre- 
spondence, but we can make no comparison between a 
percept or re-percept and a material object. We do 
not form images of sounds, or odors, or flavors, or text- 
ures, or weights, or temperatures. 

Sense-perception does not give copies of external 



MEMORY. H3 

objects. Self interprets the qualities or signs of mate- 
rial objects and groups these into percepts. When re- 
called, these r<s -percepts suggest but do not resemble the 
original objects. By keeping this fact in mind you will 
avoid much error and confusion. 

2. Remembrances consist of fewer details than the 
original objects. But these skeletons are better in most 
cases for thought purposes than the real objects. The 
mind seizes on the essentials, and is not confused by 
multitudinous details. In thought and imagination we 
deal with our revived notions of things. 

3. Remembrances ordinarily awaken less intense 
emotion than experiences. Some are more deeply af- 
fected by recollections than others, because of their abil- 
ity to reproduce more vividly past experiences. Some 
even intensify memories by thought and imagination, 
and thus deepen the feelings. But, as a rule, memories 
create less and less emotion, until we are able to con- 
template even the death of a mother with composure. 

Attention, Consciousness, and Memory. — Penetrating 
and prolonged attention gives clear consciousness and 
good memory. These three activities enter into all dis- 
tinct mental work. Self, as attention, concentrates his 
efforts ; self, as consciousness, perceives himself know- 
ing, feeling, and willing ; self, as memory, reproduces 
without change his past acquisitions. We are conscious 
of what is passing around us and within us when we give 
attention. We remember only those things of which 
we have been conscious. Slight attention, dim conscious- 
ness, and faulty memory go together. The more com- 
plete the attention the more distinct will be the con- 
sciousness and the more tenacious will be the memory. 



114 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Laws of Memory. 

A law is a uniform way in wliich ail energy acts. 
The uniform ways in wliich the soul acts in recalling 
past acquisitions are called the laws of memory. It is 
not an accident that I remember this and not that. 
Law reigns in the world of mind. Three memory-laws 
are well recognized : the law of the brain, the law of 
acquisition, and the law of suggestion. 

I. Law of the Brain. — Memory depends on the con- 
dition of the brain. When my brain is in good con- 
dition, I remember readily ; but when tired out, or suf- 
fering from a severe attack of sick-headache, I recollect 
with difficulty and very imperfectly. The Rev. John 
Applegate received a blow which indented a small por- 
tion of his skull. For a year the past was blotted out, 
but, as soon as the indented portion of the skull was 
removed, he remembered as he did before receiving the 
injury. Each one can verify this law by his own expe- 
rience and observation. However explained, we can not 
deny the fact that good digestion favors good memory. 

1. Vigorous health, is the first requirement of the law of the 
brain. As a rule, the cerebrum, the immediate organism through 
which the mind acts, is a fit instrument for mental activity in the 
ratio of physical vigor. It is certain that good memory and good 
health are closely related. Other things being equal, the better 
your physical condition, the better will be your memory. 

2. Frequent change is the second requirement of the law of the 
brain. Different mental acts call into activity different ganglionic 
areas. The study of physical science calls into activity some portions 
of the cerebrum, while mathematics, literature, and art call into ac- 
tivity other parts. A profound physiological and psychical law un- 
derlies the practice of all schools, from the primary to the university, 



MEMORY. 115 

in giving daily lessons in each of the four great departments named. 
Thus all the mental faculties are judiciously exercised, and different 
ganglia are successively called into activity. Continually thinking 
on one subject inflames the portion of the brain so overworked. 
Memory, as well as thought, becomes confused. It is not so much 
the wear of a single effort, but it is the monotonous beat upon beat, 
stroke upon stroke, always in the same place. As drops of water 
wear away stones, so a long series of reiterated mental blows will 
shiver the golden bowl. 

3. Effort must stop slwrt of exhaustion is the third requirement 
of the law of the brain. Exhaustion weakens. Nearly all the evil 
effects of hard study come from carrying effort to exhaustion. Let 
the student work vigorously for forty minutes, and rest and recreate 
twenty minutes out of each hour. He will grow stronger, and will 
in the end learn double as much as the student who pores over his 
books hour after hour. Memory will become accurate and distinct. 
Most young children in our schools suffer severe injury from the 
constant violation of this requirement. A recess each hour, or some 
equivalent, is imperative. 

II. Law of Acquisition. — The mind tends to recall 
what is thoroughly known. Self tends to repeat his 
acts. What we have done we tend to do again. The 
mind tends to act as it has acted before. When we 
know things thoroughly we can recall them readily and 
accurately. Each repetition gives increased facility in 
recalling. Thus habits are formed. 

1. This law requires interested attention. In order to know 
thoroughly, we must feel a deep interest in the subject and give our 
entire attention to its mastery. The more complete the attention, 
the greater the tendency to recall. We remember in the ratio of our 
attention. When we concentrate all our energies upon a subject 
and examine it closely for a considerable time, we fix the matter in 
our minds. Such acquisitions are readily recalled. The wise teacher 
creates and sustains intense interest, and thus secures complete at- 
tention and good memory. The wise student bends all his energies 
to the work in hand. What he thus acquires he knows thoroughly 
and recalls readily. 



116 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. This law requires vividness of apprehension. The mind most 
readily recalls that which it vividly apprehends. What is indis- 
tinctly and partially grasped will soon be forgotten. The more 
vivid and complete the apprehension, the better will be the recollec- 
tion. Listless persons are notorious for poor memories. Wide- 
awake persons rarely complain of forgetf ulness. 

3. This law requires frequency of repetition. What is often re- 
called, and in various relations, is easily reproduced. When the 
intervals are short, each repetition deepens the impression and 
strengthens the tendency to persist. The wise teacher makes each 
lesson a review of previous lessons. The wise student never becomes 
" rusty," but keeps his acquisitions bright by use. The old man re- 
members things of his childhood so vividly because he has reviewed 
them so often. 

III. Law of Suggestion. — Present experiences tend to 
suggest past experiences. " By a wonderful process, 
which is sometimes called mental suggestion or associa- 
tion, we find that every thought and action in a long 
life links itself with some other thought or action. No 
mental act is completely isolated. No act, even of per- 
ception, takes place without associating itself with some 
previous thought, or suggesting a new one." * 

Methods of association and suggestion. There are 
five ways in which experiences are associated, and in 
which ideas tend to suggest one another. " These seem 
to me to be original and irreducible ; at least, no re- 
duction of them can be made that will be of practical 
value. They will remain the separate working meth- 
ods of suggestion, and must be studied as such." f 
By five circles we may fitly represent our experiences 
as linked together in five distinct ways. By having 
each circle cut all the other circles, it is intended to 
indicate the truth that the suggestion may occur in 

* Fiske. 1 Hopkins. 



MEMORY. 



117 



any one of these five ways. The possibilities of re- 
calling are thus multiplied many fold. 



RESEMBLANCE 



O 



CONTIGUITY 



ANALOGY 



1. Resemblance.— Resembling objects tend to bring up each other. 
Like tends to recall like. This cottage reminds me of my child- 
hood home. The youth I just met called back to mind my col- 
lege friend. Similar sounds and odors and flavors and emotions 
tend to suggest each other. But it is needless to multiply examples. 
Each moment you may observe the workings of this law. You may 
give several illustrations from your own experience. 

2. Contrast.— Contrasted objects tend to bring up each other. 
Dissimilars recall dissimilars. Darkness suggests light, pain suggests 



118 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

pleasure, evil suggests good, death suggests life. You may give ex- 
amples in your own experience. 

3. Contiguity. — Experiences which occur together tend to suggest 
each other. This is the great central method of association and 
suggestion. Places and things near together suggest each other. 
Versailles suggests Paris, Brooklyn suggests New York. Places also 
suggest events occurring at or near them. Philadelphia suggests 
the Declaration of Independence, West Point suggests Arnold's 
treason. Contiguous occurrences tend to bring up each other. Ideas 
which have been in the mind at the same time tend to recall each 
other. Experiences which occur together or in immediate succession 
tend to suggest each other. You see two persons together. The 
sight of one will tend to suggest the other. Association of words, 
of sounds, of thoughts, of forms occurring together are of this kind. 
Events occurring near together are thus associated. Waterloo sug- 
gests St. Helena. Of a group of contemporaneous events, each sug- 
gests the adjacent links, and so on. You may give illustrations from 
your experience. 

4. Correlation. — Correlated ideas tend to bring up each other. 
Dependent and related ideas tend to suggest each other. The end 
suggests the means, the effect the cause, the conclusion the premises. 
Things related suggest each other. Signs suggest the signification, 
as the mathematical signs. The sword suggests power. What is 
suggested by the flag, the cross, the crown, the altar, the pulpit, the 
platform 1 

Certain sounds or sights have come to awaken in our minds 
ideas, and they are ideas which have been associated by the eye and 
by the ear. In other words, things seen and things heard suggest 
not themselves, but something else that stood in connection with 
them. Human language, whether spoken or written, is an extended 
illustration of this law of suggestion. We have come by this law 
to have certain thoughts arise in the mind when certain words are 
presented to us. There is no reason why horse should instantly 
bring up the picture of a horse, except that we have associated with 
that word that animal. 

5. Analogy. — Tilings analogous tend to bring up each other. 
The river rolling on for ever suggests the endless flight of time; 
spring suggests youth, and winter old age. White suggests purity, 
and purple suggests royalty. Analogies more or less striking per- 
vade the thought-world. 



MEMORY. 



119 



Marvelous, almost infi- 
nite, are the associations of 
ideas, emotions, actions. 
The law of suggestion 
works wonders, and the 
most wonderful of all is 
the power to call back to 
consciousness the experi- 
ences of a long life. 

Forgetting. — It is a be- 
neficent law that evil, pain- 
ful, and unimportant things 
shall fade from memory. 
We refuse to recall what 
would give us pain or 
uselessly burden memory. 
This is the true Lethe. On 
the other hand, we live 
over and over again our 
joyful experiences, and they 
stay with us forever. For- 
getting is as necessary to a 
happy life as remembering. 

Growth of Memory. — 
The early activity of memo- 
ry is a familiar fact. "When 
a few weeks old the infant 
recognizes its nurse, and 
when a few months old it 
recognizes words as the 
signs of ideas. Objective, 
or concrete memory be- 



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120 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

comes quite active during the second year, and reach- 
es full activity about the tenth year. Childhood is 
peculiarly the time to cultivate concrete memory, or 
memory of things and concrete facts. About the tenth 
year the pupil begins to acquire and recall readily 
semi-abstractions, or the concrete and the abstract com- 
bined. By the fourteenth year abstract memory, or 
memory of classifications, principles, and inferences, is 
quite active, and seems to be fully active at eighteen. 
From the tenth year to the eighteenth year is pre-emi- 
nently the period for the higher forms of memory-cult- 
ure. In manhood, memory is kept vigorous by use, and 
certainly may be greatly strengthened in special direc- 
tions. Even the aged may, by systematic effort, keep 
memory strong. The tendency to live exiled in the 
past should be resisted. The world is full of new beauty 
and new truth. Let the aged keep en rapport with the 
present, and keep memory vigorous by constantly re- 
calling recent acquisitions. 

Development of Memory." — We recall most readily 
what we apprehend most clearly. Persistent effort in 
faithfully reproducing our past experiences educates 
memory. A good memory is of incalculable value. It 
enables us to compare, combine, and firmly interlock 
past and present acquisitions. One with a poor mem- 
ory gropes in the dark. Because he can not command 
his facts, he can not do effective thinking. Great men 
have almost invariably possessed great memories. 

[As a magnet will increase its force if a slight increase is made 
daily to the weight it supports, so the memory of numbers, dates, 
facts, and principles may be indefinitely increased by committing 

* See " Education of Memory " in " Applied Psychology and Teaching." 



MEMORY. 121 

an additional one or two each day to memory, and taking care by 
frequent reviews that nothing once memorized shall escape. But 
equal care should be taken not to overburden the power of recollec- 
tion by undertaking too many new items at a time. Let the student 
make a special effort with precisely the kind of recollection that he 
is most deficient in, be it names, dates, shapes, or whatever it be, and 
he will find that, by persistent practice for a few months, he can 
bring the special power to the front. The habit of attention to like- 
ness and difference, so that the mind at once takes in the species 
and differentia involuntarily, is the habit that secures good memory.] 

Systematic and persistent exercise in recalling tends 
to develop memory. A plan of work that secures such 
exercise may be called a method of educating this 
power. Good study and good teaching promote the 
growth of memory. 

Comparative Psychology. — The brute associates im- 
pressions, and present impressions suggest to it former 
impressions. The brute recalls its past experiences. As 
animal experience is limited to the sensuous, so brute 
recollection is limited to recalling sensuous impressions. 
Impressions are vague intellectual products lower than 
ideas. That present impressions tend to suggest past 
impressions is the great law of brute memory. 

SUG GESTIVE STUD Y-HIKTS. 

Review.— Explain intuition. Why are the perceptive faculties 
called intuitive powers? Define each of the perceptive powers. 
Distinguish sense-percepts, conscious-percepts, and noumenal-per- 
cepts. Give two examples of each. Etc. Take your examples and 
illustrations largely from the studies you are now pursuing. One 
example from your own experience may be worth more to you than 
ten from other sources. 

What is meant by representation ? By representative powers ? 
What other names are applied to these powers? Name the three 
representative faculties. Give an example of each activity. 



122 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Analyze an act of memory. What four points do you discover ? 
Why do you call these elements of memory ? Does each complete 
act of memory involve these elements ? 

Explain retention. Illustrate. What is retained ? Explain rec- 
ollection. Give synonyms. Illustrate. Explain association. Illus- 
trate. Explain recognition. Give examples. 

Describe the office of memory. What do you mean by the 
function of a faculty ? What do you mean by a faculty % Give two 
characteristics of memory. Give a distinction between conscious- 
ness and memory. 

State the author's definition of memory ; your definition ; Ev- 
erett's definition. 

Give synonyms of memories. Illustrate each. What is a per- 
cept? A re-percept? Why do you call recollections intellect- 
ual? Give three points of difference between experiences and 
memories. 

What do you mean by energy ? by soul-energies ? by law ? by 
laws of memory 1 Give the law of the brain. Give and explain its 
three requirements. Give the law of acquisition. Give and explain 
its three requirements. 

Explain association and suggestion. Give the five ways in 
which ideas suggest each other. Illustrate by circles. Give the law 
of resemblance. Give three examples. Explain the law of con- 
trast. Illustrate the law of contiguity. Give the law of correla- 
tion ; also of analogy. Give examples of each. 

What do you mean by the growth of memory? Explain the 
diagram showing the stages of memory-growth. What is meant by 
educating memory? How may you improve your memory? 

Give your explanation of brute memory. How does brute mem- 
ory differ from human memory ? 

State the law of forgetfulness. Why is it important to be able 
to forget ? What should we forget ? How do we forget ? 

Letter. — Show your friend that graphic and other devices are 
designed to aid him to gain clear views of self ; but insist on his 
verifying everything for himself by constantly looking within. Try 
to interest him in the improvement of his memory. 



MEMORY. 



123 



Topical Analysis of Chapter X. — Memory. 



I. Elements of Memory. 

Retention. 
Recollection. 

II. Office of Memory. 

III. Characteristics of Memory. 

Memory reproduces. 
Memory altends all knowing. 

IV. Memory Defined. 

Author's definition. 
Original definition. 

V. Memory-Knowledge. 

Names. 

Memories. Recollections. 

Re-percepts and Re-concepts. 
Intellectual products. 

Experiences and Memories. 

Memory and other faculties. 



VI 

VII 

VIII 



Laws of Memory. 

Law of the brain. 
Law of acquisition. 
Law of suggestion. 

Resemblance. Contiguity. 

Contrast. Correlation. 

Law of forgetting. 

IX. Growth of Memory. 

In childhood. In youth. 

X. Development of Memory. 

Time. Means. 

XL Comparative Psychology. 

Human memory. 



Representation. 
Recognition. 



Various definitions. 



Remembrances. 



Analogy. 

In manhood. 
Methods. 
Brute memory. 



10 



124 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER XL 

PHANTASY. 

By this is meant the power to represent spontane- 
ously our experiences in new forms which seem to be 
realities. Without purpose, the soul weaves into curious 
shapes its experiences. Self, as phantasy, does not cre- 
ate ideals, but merely conjoins experiences in new ways. 

The soul is ever active. Intentional activity exhausts 
the physical organism. The brain needs rest. "When 
I cease to think, and float off into dream-land, the brain 
rests, recuperates, but the sonl continues its ceaseless 
activity. Self for his own amusement images an end- 
less panorama. In revery, as in sleep, an endless chain 
of phantom-forms is ever passing. These pictures we 
call phantasms, and the power to produce them we term 
phantasy.* 

Self, as memory, reproduces his past experiences un- 
changed. However faint our recollections, we recog- 
nize them as past experiences. But, in revery and in 
dreams, our experiences, strangely modified, are ^-pre- 
sented. Memory and sensation furnish materials. Self, 

* This form of representation has been slighted by many psychologists. 
Most have treated it as a phase of imagination. I consider phantasy a dis- 
tinct form of representation. This view seems to me to greatly simplify the 
subject. This orthography is preferred, because phantasy in this sense is 
a definite term. Webster says : " A phantasm is an image formed by the 
mind and supposed to be real." Phantasy, as here used, is the power to 
form phantasms. Fancy, a contraction for phantasy, is now used in so 
many senses as to be extremely objectionable. 



PHANTASY. 125 

as phantasy, weaves the materials into grotesque and 
fantastic groups called phantasms. At the time these 
seem to us objective realities. They often seem so 
real that we are surprised to find them phantoms of 
our brains. 

Acts of Phantasy Analyzed. — We are conscious of the 
acts of self as phantasy. We are able to recall and ex- 
amine some of these acts. Nothing is more common 
than dreain-telling. Let us examine a day-dream. I 
was resting in my easy-chair. I ceased all intentional 
effort, and my senses ceased to bring me messages from 
the outer world. I drift into revery-land. " A beauti- 
ful flower-garden surrounds me. A sparkling fountain 
is near me. Floating on the little lake are three swans. 
A bevy of lovely girls, seated in a boat, cheer me with 
laughter and song. One" — the door-bell aroused me, 
and the scene vanished. At the time all seemed real. 
When aroused, I knew that the picture was the work of 
phantasy. Kelate a day-dream and also a night-dream. 
Show the work of phantasy. 

Office of Phantasy. — Phantasy is the power to weave 
our experiences into phantasms. 

1. Self, as phantasy, aggregates his experiences. In 
this form of representation self, as memory, merely re- 
calls without recognizing experiences. Phantasy con- 
joins experiences, immediate and revived. The material 
is not analyzed ; it is merely joined together, or aggre- 
gated. Phantasy represents experiences in new forms. 

2. Phantasy gives hints to memory, imagination, 
and thought. In discerning class-notions, the vague, 
shadowy phantasm dimly outlines the concept. We see 
three-sidedness, but the corners are blurred. We see 



126 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

the soldier, but shadows conceal his uniform and armor. 
Hints of phantasy doubtless help imagination to some 
of its grandest achievements. Phantasms often suggest 
realities. 

3. Phantasy is the safety-valve of the soul. Death 
of brain-fiber follows each thought, emotion, and pur- 
pose. A few hours of vigorous study exhaust the work- 
ing brain. The soul is ceaselessly active. Phantasy, 
we infer, acts through brain-areas not exhausted by in- 
tentional activity. While the working brain recuper- 
ates, the soul amuses itself with vivacious picture-groups. 

Characteristics of Phantasy. — We study the phenom- 
ena of mental action in revery and dreams. We dis- 
cover a new world called dream-land. We find that 
the soul is endowed with the capability to produce 
phantasms. 

1. Phantasy is undirected representation. To give 
the weary brain rest, self, ceasing to acquire and direct, 
drifts off into the land of shadows. Spontaneously the 
mind forms grotesque and shadowy panoramas. Self, as 
phantasy, is a kaleidoscope. 

2. Phantasy is lawless representation. The real 
world disappears and the shadowy world seems the real 
world. The soul feels joy or sorrow in view of these 
phantasms. The laws of time and place and sequence 
are ignored. The sea is crossed in a moment. Snow- 
castles are as warm as summer bowers. 

3. Phantasy is self -drifting. We seem to be spec- 
tators. We see ourselves sicken and die. We attend 
our own funerals. We do not usually remember our 
dreams because we do not consciously connect the 
waking and the shadowy worlds. Self, as phantasy, 



PHANTASY. 127 

drifts, scribbles, The record is indistinct, for there is 
little or no attention. These phantasms are not worth 
preserving. They do not connect with our waking ac- 
tivities. They fade away like the morning mists. It 
is well. 

4. Phantasy pleases and refreshes. It is the play 
faculty of the soul. When we are at peace with our 
stomachs, ourselves, our neighbors, and our Creator, we 
have refreshing sleep and pleasant dreams. 

Phantasy Defined. — As phantasy, self blends the ob- 
jective and subjective. The soul drifts. Without effort 
and without intention it links fancy unto fancy. During 
revery and sleep our phantasms seem to us to be objec- 
tive realities. The products of phantasy are concrete, 
and have in all cases a material basis. Our phantasms 
are limited to our experiences. The phantasms of the 
blind are colorless ; those of the deaf, soundless. 

1. Phantasy is the capability of self to represent 
spontaneously his experiences in new forms called phan- 
tasms. A phantasm is a crude picture-group which 
seems to be an objective reality. At the time we are 
conscious of our phantasms, but not of self making 
them out of his revived experiences. As phantasy is 
the dominant activity in dreams and revery, this form 
of representation is called phantasy. 

2. Original. Give your definition of this power. 
Try to sharply distinguish memory and phantasy. 

3. Various Definitions. — Porter : Phantasy is the power to bring 
before the mind images severed from all relations. Schuyler : Phan- 
tasy is the power to produce a series of images of which it is itself 
a spectator. Hopkins : The soul as phantasy is the spontaneous 
source of reveries and dreams. White : Phantasy is the power to 
spontaneously make phantasms which seem realities. 



128 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Relations of Phantasy to the other Faculties. — The 

psychologist ventures modestly here. The phantom- 
world is the real wonder-land. Many problems remain 
unsolved. 

1. Phantasy and memory. Self, as memory, revives 
his experiences ; self, as phantasy, weaves these expe- 
riences into new forms called phantasms. In dream- 
land we recognize former dreams as ours, but recogni- 
tion of our waking activities is wanting. Phantasms 
are designed for temporary amusement, and it is not the 
business of memory to retain them. 

2. Phantasy and the emotions. The sleeping child 
laughs or weeps. The criminal undergoes the agonies 
of execution in his dreams. Phantasms stir the emo- 
tions only less than the realities. " I felt glad when I 
awoke and found it all a dream." 

3. Phantasy and will. During revery and dreams, 
the soul, as will, is ordinarily almost passive. The ac- 
tivity of phantasy is unintentional and undirected. The 
absence of attention accounts largely for our inability 
to recall phantasms. 

4. Phantasy and the thinking faculties. In rev- 
ery and dreams, fortunately, the thought-element is 
deficient. The exhausted thought-ganglia need rest. 
Phantasy sometimes aids thought by vaguely picturing 
concepts, judgments, and arguments, and thought is 
sometimes abnormally active during disturbed sleep. 

5. Phantasy and imagination. Phantasy is slightly 
active during our waking hours, and its imagery con- 
stantly furnishes hints to imagination and thought. 
Imagination is more or less active during sleep, and 
sometimes develops phantasms into ideals. 



PHANTASY. 129 

These are general statements. In fact, the soul in 
all its powers may be active in some degree during 
sleep. The character of our phantasms depends largely 
on the relative activity of our various capabilities. 
When reason is active, our phantasms become debates. 
When will is active, our phantasms become actions. 
When emotion is active, our phantasms become love- 
scenes. 

Phantasy in Dreams. — It is certain that nutrition 
of brain and nerves is at its maximum during sound 
sleep. The dead tissue caused by mental effort is re- 
moved and replaced by living tissue. Retarded cere- 
bral circulation renders the brain unfit for thought 
purposes. Self ceases from volitional activity. The 
body reposes and recuperates. This is sleep. With 
awe and doubt the psychologist attempts to explore 
dream-land. He finds amid much uncertainty some 
well-established truths : 

1. Self never ceases to act. During sleep the activity is almost 
purely automatic. Because of its evident activity in dreams, because 
there are no indications of dreamless sleep, and because we never 
find it inactive, we infer the continued activity of the soul during 
the profoundest slumber. 

2. Self is not conscious that dreams are psychical acts. Dream- 
land seems to be real land. We are conscious of dream phenomena, 
but are not conscious at the time that our dreams are creations of 
the mind. To this statement there are apparent exceptions. In pro- 
found sleep dreams are not usually remembered, but is not the soul 
conscious at the time of the passing phantasms'? 

3. Self, as will, acts feebly, if at all, in sleep. The soul floats 
in the mists of dream-land. No attention, no directed effort, no vol- 
untary action disturbs deep sleep. 

4. Self, as thought, is quiescent. In disturbed sleep, the thinking 
faculties may be more or less active, and sometimes are very active. 
We even solve problems that we could not solve while awake. The 



130 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

rule, however, holds good : thought is largely absent from our re- 
freshing dreams. 

5. Organic sensations modify dreams. The special senses cease 
to report ordinary excitations. The ears and the nose, as well as the 
eyes, are closed. But the conditions of the stomach and other organs 
strangely affect our dreams. How do late suppers affect our 
dreams ? 

6. The emotions are more or less active. In sweet, healthful 
sleep, our feelings are pleasant, and a feeling of satisfaction pervades 
our being. All goes well. But exciting dreams stir our anger, ex- 
cite our mirthfulness, or move us to tears. In all forms of phantasy 
there seems to be a connecting current of feeling. 

7. Memory as suggestion is active. One thing suggests another 
in an endless chain, but recognition is wanting. Thus self, as mem- 
ory, from his experiences recalls the materials out of which he makes 
his phantasms. Phantasms pass as a rapidly moving panorama be- 
fore the eye of consciousness. There is little or no attention. The 
medley lacks all system. Our waking experiences fail to suggest 
these fleeting specters. It is well that we do not remember di'earns. 
We can hardly conceive a greater misfortune than to have the 
myriad phantasms of the night obtruding upon our waking life. 
We are conscious of our dreams at the time, and we often in our 
sleep recall and recognize former dreams. Here we find one of the 
great marvels of dream-land. 

8. Phantasy revels m dream-land. While the work-a-day brain 
imposes and recuperates, self, as phantasy, calls into action the por- 
tions of the brain that repose during directed effort. This hint of 
infinite wisdom can not be mistaken. The never-wearying soul con- 
forms to the needs of a material organism. 

Phantasy in Somnambulism.— One or more of the 
sensor organs is excited. The motor organs are stimu- 
lated to action by the phantasm. Sleep-walking is the 
ordinary form of somnambulism. Sometimes the think- 
ing faculties are intensely active, and difficult problems 
are worked out. The phantasm seems reality, and the 
dreamer becomes an actor. Seldom do somnambulists 
remember their exploits. 



PHANTASY. 131 

Phantasy in Mesmerism, Clairvoyance, etc. — Mesmer- 
ism and clairvoyance are forms of induced revery. 
While the will is passive, some of the faculties are 
stimulated to intense activity. Phantasms seem reali- 
ties, and the muscular organs respond to the excitation. 
Through suggestions, the operator induces phantasms, 
and thus leads the mesmerized to da strange things. 

Phantasy in Insanity, Drunkenness, etc. — Insanity is 
such an affection of the brain as renders it an unfit or- 
ganism for mental action. Insanity is a disease of the 
brain. Phantasms possess the soul. An insane man is 
no longer a self-directing person. The creations of 
phantasy occasioned by a diseased brain are to him the 
only realities. The phantasms assume every possible 
form. To the soul embodied in a whiskey- soaked brain, 
snakes and demons are fearful realities. 

Phantasy in Nerve-Diseases. — Internal excitations of 
the sensor organs are referred to external causes. Wak- 
ing dreams are believed to be external realities. Illu- 
sions of this kind are myriad. 

1. Vision. Internal excitations of the optic apparatus occasion 
the appearance of external images. The victim believes these men- 
tal images to be real, external objects. Many honestly believe that 
they have seen friends long dead. Vision is admirably explained by 
Shakespeare in the dagger-scene in Macbeth. He gives the exact 
physiological explanation, in language which, for accuracy and brev- 
ity, can not be surpassed. He calls it 

" A dagger of the mind, a false creation, 
Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain." 
Intense emotion, driving the blood to the brain, heats and oppresses 
the nerve-centers, producing " a heat-oppressed brain." By a brain 
so oppressed, phantasms — daggers of the mind — are created and 
projected into space. Nerve-diseases produce similar results. Au- 
ditory illusions, tactile illusions, gustatory illusions, and olfactory 
illusions may be accounted for in the same way. 



132 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. Hysteria is hydra-headed illusion, occasioned by nerve-dis- 
eases. The victim believes the illusion reality. Phantasy dominates 
reason. Disillusion is difficult and sometimes impossible. 

Happy Dreams. — It may be well to ponder some of 
the conditions favoring pleasant dreams : 

1. Physical. Suitable food and warmth, good di- 
gestion, sufficient exercise, and proper recreation are 
essential to refreshing dreams. Avoid exhaustion. 

2. Psychical. A good conscience, with cheerful, 
earnest work and rational recreation, prepare us for 
happy dreams. Avoid worry as you avoid sin. 

3. Things to cherish. During our waking hours we 
should acquire knowledge and cherish everything beau- 
tiful and pure. We should labor unselfishly for human 
good. "We should cherish every high and ennobling 
ideal. Our phantasms will thus become refreshing, 
pure, and elevating. 

4. Things to avoid. As we avoid deadly poisons, so 
should we avoid low and impure companionship, litera- 
ture, or thoughts. If cherished, such things become 
nests of vipers and hosts of fiends to trouble us in our 
dreams. Avoid telling dreams. Even when they recur 
to you, drive them away by earnest work. Encourage no 
one to tell dreams in your presence. Avoid associating 
much with persons so weak as to believe in dreams and 
presentiments. So may your dreams be pleasant. 

Comparative Psychology. — Numerous indications au- 
thorize the conclusions that brutes are endowed with, 
the power to form phantasms. The dog, like some men, 
talks in his sleep. The horse evidently sees ghosts. The 
brute perceives, remembers, forms phantasms. But these 
representations are sensual and indescribably cinide. 



IMAGINATION. 133 



SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Eeview. — Give the difference between presentative and repre- 
sentative powers. Why are the perceptive faculties called presenta- 
tive powers ? Give the distinction between a percept and a re-per- 
cept. Do we recall emotions 1 What is the office of sense-percep- 
tion ? Consciousness ? Memory ? Define each. Etc. 

Analyze an act of phantasy. Out of what are phantasms made % 
Does self as phantasy create? Mention some characteristics of 
phantasy. State the office of phantasy. Specify. What is a phan- 
tasm ? 

Give author's definition of phantasy ; yours ; Porter's. 

State the relation of phantasy to memory ; to the emotions ; to 
will ; to thought ; to imagination. 

Tell what you know about dreams. What has phantasy to do 
with dreams % Why do we not remember dreams % Explain som- 
nambulism; mesmerism; drunkenness; insanity; visions; hysteria. 

Name the conditions of happy dreams. Should we often tell 
dreams ? Why I 

Diagram and Letter. — You may now make an analysis of Chap- 
ter XI, and embrace this in your letter to your friend. Write a 
careful letter. Most persons have confused notions of phantasy, 
strangely mixing memory and imagination with phantasy. If in 
your power, make the distinctions clear to your friend. 



CHAPTER XII. 

IMAGINATION. 

By this is meant our power to intentionally represent 
our acquisitions in new forms. Out of our experiences, 
recalled and immediate, we make new wholes. As the 
potter molds clay, so we mold our acquisitions into 
new forms. As perception, self perceives things having 
properties. As memory, self represents his past expe- 



134 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

rienccs unchanged. Out of materials furnished by per- 
ception and memory, the mind, as imagination, con- 
structs a new world called the ideal world. 

Acts of Imagination Analyzed. — This block is a cubic 
foot. Now it is a cubic yard, now a cubic rod, now a 
cubic mile, now a cubic world. Now it is a rhomboid, 
now a cylinder, now an ellipse. Now it is wood, now 
iron, now gold. Now it is red, now yellow, now green. 
Self, as imagination, changes size, changes form, changes 
material, changes color. You may now make out of 
materials furnished, a tree. You have gold, iron, cop- 
per, silver. Your tree has copper roots, iron trunk and 
branches, silver leaves, and gold fruit. You may make 
five different trees out of the same material. You may 
also make of the same materials five chairs. Here you 
observe self, as imagination, constructing new wholes 
out of materials furnished. 

You may now blot out St. Louis and make a city 
to suit yourself. The Gulf now extends to St. Louis, 
and the city is, built at the foot of a snow-capped 
mountain. But you are the creator of this new St. 
Louis. You find that self, as imagination, erases old 
forms and constructs new forms out of materials fur- 
nished by memory. 

Office of Imagination. — Imagination is the creative 
power of the soul. It is our power to give shape to 
our acquisitions. Self, as imagination, so changes and 
combines his acquisitions as to form new wholes. These 
new combinations are called creations of the mind. In 
this sense, self, as imagination, creates. 

1. Self, as imagination, modifies his acquisitions. 
The size, the form, the color, and the materials are in- 



IMAGINATION. 135 

finitely varied. Now the book could be placed in a 
mustard-seed ; now it would fill a church. You may 
give many illustrations. 

2. Self, as imagination, creates and destroys. Crea- 
tion is used in the sense of making new wholes out of 
materials given. Imagination creates no new elements. 
Far out beyond the bounds of all worlds I create a new 
world and people it with new orders of intelligent 
beings. Not satisfied, I destroy my creation and make 
another vastly more magnificent. Try it. 

3. Self, as imagination, projects the future. Napo- 
leon fought his battles in imagination many times be- 
fore he led his battalions to victory. The lover proposes 
again and again in imagination before he ventures his 
fate. Demosthenes addressed a thousand imaginary 
audiences before he captivated the Athenians. Often, 
in imagination, the teacher organizes and conducts her 
school before she enters the school-room. The youth 
lives many lives in imagination before he achieves suc- 
cess. The bride-elect goes through her part in the 
marriage-ceremony many times before the wedding-day. 

4. Self, as imagination, creates ideals. This is pre- 
eminently the office of imagination. The painter de- 
termines to portray a noble heroism. This is the idea. 
As an object, he pictures a brave young man battling 
with oppression and misfortune in his heroic efforts to 
become a pre-eminent benefactor. The picture in his 
mind is his ideal. Now with pencil and brush he toils. 
Now he sees on the canvas his ideal realized, embodied. 
Ideals are the working-models for inventors, artists, 
poets, and character-builders. Our highest ideal is per- 
fect manhood, realized only in Christ. 



136 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

" Lives of great men all remind us 
We can make our lives sublime." 
From all noble lives we gather materials for the crea 
tion of our ideal life. Then, by every act, thought, and 
emotion, we struggle to realize and embody this ideal. 
This is character-building. 

Characteristics of Imagination. — Certain peculiarities 
mark imagination as a distinct faculty. 

1. Imagination is our power purposely to repre- 
sent our acquisitions in new forms. Out of its cogni- 
tions, immediate and remembered, the soul intention- 
ally constructs new forms. Inventors, artists, poets, 
educators, and scientists are gifted with vigorous imag- 
inations. 

2. Imagination is the intentional picturing power. 
All its products are individual and have a material 
basis. We call our capability to purposely make images, 
imagination. The successful student uses his imagi- 
nation almost as much as he uses his reason. 

3. Imagination is the creative power of the soul. 
In its highest form, it virtually creates. Its creations 
are new because experiences are set in new lights. 
" Poetry is truer than history." A fable may contain 
more truth than a biography, because the permanent 
meaning of things is set in general forms. Because 
they represent universal human nature, the creations of 
Homer and Plato and Shakespeare and Emerson will 
continue to live through the centuries. 

Limits of Imagination. — Lofty as are his flights, self, 
as imagination, works within well-defined limits. 

1. As to physical phenomena, imagination is lim- 
ited to sense-percepts. I can place in my creations only 



IMAGINATION. 137 

what I have experienced. The creations of the blind 
are colorless ; of the deaf, soundless ; of those destitute 
of smell, odorless. 

2. As to psychical phenomena, imagination is lim- 
ited to conscious-percepts. I endow my rational crea- 
tions with my own conscious powers. I can do no more. 
My angels simply know, feel, and will. God knows 
infinitely, feels infinitely, wills infinitely, but it is im- 
possible for me to endow even Deity with additional 
powers, though convinced that His capabilities are infi- 
nite in number as in degree. 

3. As to noumena, imagination is limited to nou- 
menal percepts. The creations of Homer and Shake- 
speare are limited to matter, mind, space, time, and 
cause ; but, within the charmed circle, what wonders are 
wrought! Imagination, "bounded in a nut-shell, is 
king of infinite space." 

4. Imagination is limited to the concrete and the 
individual. I think vertebrate, but my ideal is a beau- 
tiful gazelle. I think triangle, but my image is a spe- 
cific equilateral triangle. Triangle can not be imagined, 
because it would have to be at once right-angled, equi- 
lateral, and isosceles. You can think the abstract and 
the general, but you can imagine only the concrete and 
the particular. 

Imagination defined. — Self, as imagination, out of his 
experiences constructs new wholes. Because you are 
endowed with this power you can make an original 
essay, a new invention, or a new poem. The ideas in 
Hamlet are old, but the play is new. Imagination is 
our capability to purposely make new combinations. 

1. Imagination is the j>ower of self purposely to 



138 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

put his experiences into new forms. Self, as memory, 
recalls the experiences out of which he creates his 
ideals. As the creative activity predominates, this form 
of representation is called imagination. 

2. Original. You may now use your imagination 
in constructing an original definition of this power. 
Try to make clear distinctions between memory and 
imagination, and between phantasy and imagination. 

3. Various Definitions. — Bascom : Imagination is the power of 
the mind to present to itself vividly new phenomenal forms. Sul- - 
ly : Imagination is the power to work np our experiences into new 
forms. Garvey : Imagination is the power to make new combina- 
tions. Hopkins : Imagination is the capability of the mind to re- 
arrange its acquisitions and create new wholes. Porter: Imagina- 
tion is the power to recombine and construct anew materials fur- 
nished by experience. Day: Imagination is the faculty of form, and 
is the power to construct ideals. White : Imagination is the power 
to modify and recombine the products of memory. Dewey : Imagi- 
nation is the capability to embody an idea in an image. 

Products of Imagination — Ideals. — We recognize 
memories as representing real experiences, as when the 
maiden recalls the parting scene with her lover. Phan- 
tasms seem to be objective realities, as when heart- 
breaking sobs awaken the maiden as she dreams of her 
lover untrue. But self intentionally creates ideals and 
cognizes them as his own workmanship, as when the 
maiden plans a reception-party for her returning friend. 

1. Ideals are creations of self as imagination. Any 
new form into which we purposely put our experiences 
is termed an ideal. The architect plans a model school- 
building; his plan is his ideal. The lady plans her 
flower-garden ; her plan is her ideal. You plan an ora- 
tion ; your plan is your ideal. The artist plans a pict- 



IMAGINATION. 139 

ure ; his plan is his ideal. The teacher plans a model 
school ; his plan is his ideal. You plan a noble life ; 
your plan is your ideal. 

2. Ideals are creations in which ideas and objects 
Mend hi harmony. An ideal embraces three elements : 
ideas, objects, and the blending act. The sculptor's 
idea is injured innocence ; his object is a pure but slan- 
dered maiden. In imagination, he so blends the idea 
and the object as to arouse indignation toward her tra- 
ducers and sympathy for herself. lie now embodies 
his ideal in marble. 

3. Ideals are intentional creations. Milton's Satan 
was not an accident, nor was Edison's ideal electric 
lamp. Inspiration and hard work are intimately asso- 
ciated. We work up to higher and still higher ideals. 
Purposely we embody ideas in images, and call the 
products ideals. 

Imagination and other Faculties. —Each mental power 
is supplemented by all the other faculties of the soul. 
Self, in all his capabilities, is present in each intentional 
act. Thus memory supplies materials, thought suggests 
and criticises, emotion stimulates, will concentrates ef- 
fort, determines and executes, but imagination is the 
master workman in constructing ideals. 

1. Memory supplies materials. Self, as memory, 
opens up the store-house of past acquisitions. Imme- 
diate percepts also seem to enter into our creation. Out 
of these materials, self, as imagination, constructs ideals. 
Because the imagining activity predominates, this form 
of representation is termed imagination. 

2. Thought keeps imagination within bounds. The 
idea and the object must blend in harmony. No law 

11 



140 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

must be violated. Means must be adapted to ends. 
Reason is said to clip the wings of a wild imagination. 

3. Emotion gives wings to imagination. The lover 
becomes a poet. The enthusiast becomes an invent- 
or, an orator, an artist, a scientist, a missionary, a re- 
former. 

4. Will directs imagination and works ideals into 
actuals. Self, drifting fancy-free, forms crude phan- 
tasms but creates no ideals. Eads concentrated his 
efforts for weary months before he perfected his ideal 
of the St. Louis bridge ; worked for weary years before 
his ideal became the actual bridge. 

Kinds of Imagination. — Self, as imagination, creates 
ideals. When the ideals tend to move the emotions, we 
call this power 

1. The emotional imagination. Its ennobling ideals 
are of the beautiful and the good. Its debasing ideals 
are of appetite and passion. 

The beautiful adorns the universe. God is beauty 
and he has scattered beauty everywhere. He has en- 
dowed us with the rational emotion to appreciate and 
enjoy the beautiful. He has also endowed us with emo- 
tional imagination — the power to create the beautiful. 
Song and eloquence, painting and sculpture, poetry and 
literature, architecture and landscaping, manners and 
dress — these are some of the ways in which man seeks 
to create the beautiful. Pause and reflect ! How 
large a section of life is devoted to the beautiful and 
the sublime ! 

2. The ethical imagination. The good gives rise 
to our highest ideals. All good results from obedience 
to law. Goodness is intentional conformity to law. We 



IMAGINATION. 141 

are endowed with conscience, the rational emotion to 
appreciate and enjoy the right. Ethical imagination is 
the power to create ideals of the good. The idea is 
goodness, or conformity to law ; the object is a rational 
being ; the ideal is a rational, law-abiding life. The 
duty world is the highest. Happiness is the result of 
law obeyed. One whose soul is filled with pure and 
lofty ideals becomes the noble man. 

Low and impure ideals degrade and ruin. Ideals 
born of appetite and passion tend to brutalize. 

3. The philosophic imagination. We idealize the 
thought-world. My thoughts take shape. The topics 
so arrange themselves as to follow each other logically 
and effectively. An oration is created. My knowledge 
of the plant- world takes shape. The myriad forms of 
plant-life arrange themselves into orders, families, classes, 
genera, species, individuals. The science of botany is 
created. Points, lines, surfaces, and solids appear in 
various space relations. The science of geometry is 
created. The power, control, and application of steam 
takes shape. The engine is invented. But it is need- 
less to specify. The philosophical imagination is essen- 
tial to invention, discovery, and system. Imagination 
is no less necessary to the scientist, the philosopher, 
the statesman, and the practical man, than to the poet 
or the architect. The student who is deficient in imagi- 
nation fails to master science. 

Imagination and Phantasy. — Both are dependent on perception 
and memory for materials, and both construct new forms. In other 
particulars they differ so widely that careful thinkers are constrained 
to regard them as distinct faculties. It is well to reiterate here 
" that a faculty is a power of the soul to do acts distinguishable in 
kind from other acts." 



142 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

1. Imagination is intelligent activity ; phantasy works in the 
dark. Thought guides imagination, but is measurably inactive 
during the play of phantasy. 

2. Imagination is determined activity ; phantasy is drifting. 
As imagination, the soul plans, makes working models, organizes. 
As phantasy, the soul floats down the stream and weaves a gos- 
samer web. 

3. Imagination creates ideals ; phantasy forms phantasms. 
The one gives us the " Star-spangled Banner," the other a med- 
ley ; the one gives us the Parthenon, the other a grotesque 
ruin. Imagination is the mental artist ; phantasy is the mental 
kaleidoscope. 

4. In imagination, we know that our ideals are our own crea- 
tions; in phantasy, our phantasms appear to us to be objective reali- 
ties. In imagination, the soul knows itself constructing new forms ; 
in phantasy, the soul seems to itself a spectator. 

5. Ideals are remembered ; phantasms appear for a moment, 
then disappear forever. We treasure our ideals as we do our ideas, 
but our dreams and reveries fade into utter forgetfulness. 

Growth of Imagination. — The feeble beginnings of 
imaginative activity may be noticed at an early period. 
Phantasy reigns in these early years. The effort of 
the three-year-old to make new stories indicates slight 
imagination but much phantasy. Fairy-tales delight 
young children because they are to them realities. As 
our experiences multiply, and thought and will begin 
to grow active, nursery-stories cease to satisfy. Now 
boys and girls begin to enjoy the products of imagina- 
tion, and show a disposition to do things for themselves. 
Imagination becomes decidedly active during youth, 
but rarely reaches its highest activity before the twen- 
tieth year. 

Education of Imagination.* — Culture of imagination 
immeasurably increases human achievement and human 

* See "Applied Psychology" for full discussion. 



IMAGINATION. 143 

happiness. " Imagination is capable of steady growth, 
and requires constant cultivation. The creative imagi- 
nation, when most gifted, can at first rise only to a cer- 
tain height above the materials which its experience 
gives. Its succeeding essays are founded upon those 
which have been made before, and it proceeds by suc- 
cessive steps, more or less long and high, till it attains 
the most consummate achievements that are ever reached 
by man. That there is a striking diversity of original 
endowment can not be doubted, but that this is the 
common law of the development of this power can not 
be denied." * Education makes the difference between 
a feeble and a vigorous imagination. 

" Human nature, with its joys and sorrows, its achievements and 
disappointments, is better fitted to stir up our higher faculties than 
the grandest objects fashioned out of matter. History and biography 
reveal incidents which incite the imagination, and youth should be 
made acquainted with them. They bring under our notice charac- 
ters which transcend in grandeur the greatest of the works of na- 
ture — its mountains and its vales, its streams, its cataracts, and its 
precipices. Those who would train the mind to its highest capacity 
must furnish to the young the record of deeds of heroism, of be- 
nevolence, of self-sacrifice, of courage to resist the evil and main- 
tain the good. Friendship, fidelity, patriotism, and piety must be 
presented in their most attractive forms." f 

Comparative Psychology. — The brute creates no ideals and is 
incapable of appreciating creations of imagination. It gains no 
ideas, much less does it embody ideas in images. Brute representa- 
tion includes memory and phantasy, but not imagination. Even 
the phantasms of brutes are the lowest form of sensuous combi- 
nations. So far as I can see, the brute is not endowed with even 
rudimentary imagination. 

* Porter. . * McCosh. 



144 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



S UG GESTIVE STUD Y- HINTS. 

Review. — Give the office of memory ; of phantasy. What has 
attention to do with memory? Give the five laws of sugges- 
tion. Etc. 

Does the soul, as imagination, create new ideas? What does 
it create? Do you like the word construct better than the word 
create ? Why ? 

Analyze an act of imagination. What do you discover ? Where 
does self get his materials ? What does he do with them ? 

Show the limits of imagination as to matter ; as to mind. Give 
the office of imagination. Specify. Give the characteristics of 
imagination. 

Repeat the author's definition of imagination ; your definition ; 
Garvey's definition; Dewey's definition. 

Show, by examples, the work of memory; of phantasy; of 
imagination. What are creations of imagination called? Why? 
What is an ideal ? Illustrate. Give the three elements of an ideal. 

What is the relation of imagination to memory ? to thought ? 
to emotion ? to will % Illustrate. 

What do you mean by the emotional imagination ? assthetical 
imagination ? philosophical imagination ? ethical imagination ? 

In what respect do imagination and phantasy resemble each 
other ? How do they differ ? Prove that they are separate faculties. 

Tell what you know about the growth of imagination. When 
does this power become fully active ? Give examples. 

What is the law of the development of imagination? Why 
is the education of imagination so important ? Show that the study 
of human nature stimulates imagination even more than the study 
of nature and art. 

Are brutes endowed with imagination ? How do you account 
for new combinations made by brutes ? 

Letter. — You will now write an interesting letter to your friend. 
Use your imagination. Let all your illustrations be original. Ad- 
vise the earnest culture of imagination by the study of nature, art, 
and literature. Urge the vigorous use of this power. 



IMAGINATION. 



145 



Topical Analysis of Chapter XII. — Imagination. 

I. Acts of Imagination Analyzed. 

Ideal tree. Ideal cottage. Ideal school-room. 

II. Office of Imagination. 

Modifies acquisitions. Projects the future. 

Creates new wholes. Creates ideals. 



III. Characteristics of Imagination. 



Constructive power. 
Picturing power. 

IV. Limits of Imagination. 

As to matter. 
As to mind. 

V. Definitions. 

Author's. 
Original. 
Various definitions. 

Bascom's. Garvey's. 

Sully's. Hopkins's. 

VI. Ideals. 

Creations of imagination. 
Elements. 

Ideas. Objects. 

Intentional creations. 



Ideal-making power. 



As to necessary realities. 
As to concrete things. 



Porter's. 
White's. 



Harmonious blending. 



VII. Imagination and 

Memory. Thought. Emotion. 

VIII. Kinds of Imagination. 

Emotional. Ethical. Philosophic. 

IX. Imagination and Phantasy. 

Agreements. Differences. 

X. Growth and Education of Imagination. 

Growth. Culture. Means. 

XL Comparative Psychology. 



Will. 



146 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

REPRESENTATION— GENERAL VIEW. 

Representative knowing is making present again 
past experiences. Presentation is the capability of the 
mind to make things present to itself for the first time. 
Representation includes the capabilities of self to repre- 
sent his past experiences in old and new forms. Self 
represents his experiences unchanged or in modified 
forms. Representation is a general name including a 
group of related but distinct activities. This group of 
soul-energies is known by the following 

( The Representative Powers. 

„ ) The Reproductive and Constructive Imagination. 

j The Conceptive Powers. 

v Representation. — Memory. Phantasy. Imagination. 

Because images are most prominent in representa- 
tion, some writers consider these powers as merely forms 
of imagination. This view tends to confusion, as nearly 
all writers treat memory and imagination as distinct 
powers. " Representative powers " best expresses the 
meaning, and is now one of the best-established ex- 
pressions in mental science. 

1. The representative powers are oar capabilities 
to make present again, in old or new forms, our past 
experiences. Representation is memory when we rec- 
ognize the representations as past experiences. Rep- 
resentation is phantasy when the new forms of our 
past experiences are phantasms. Representation is 



REPRESENTATION— GENERAL VIEW. 147 

imagination when the new forms of our past experi- 
ences are ideals. 

(Memory. 
Phantasy. 
Imagination. 

2. Memory is the power of self to represent in old 
forms, called memories, his past experiences. Memory 
is the capability to recall past experiences unchanged. 
As images are the most prominent features of our recol- 
lections, memory is sometimes called reproductive imagi- 
nation. Memory is every way preferable. It neither 
misleads nor confuses. It is specific, and is in universal 
use. Treating memory as a group of faculties can serve 
no good purpose. Self, as memory, does all recalling. 
Take away memory, and our past would be a blank. 
The soul, as memory, reproduces its past experiences. 
Ketention, recollection, association, and recognition are 
merely elements of complete acts of memory. 

t Memory. 

| Reproductive Imagination. 
Names. < , Retention. Association. 

( Reproduction.- j Recollection> Recognition. 

3. Phantasy is the power of self to represent spon- 
taneously his past experiences in new forms called 
phantasms. Self, as memory, recalls his experiences ; 
self, as phantasy, spontaneously weaves these experiences 
into new forms called phantasms. Phantasy is the capa- 
bility to manufacture these new forms. In this form of 
representation the soul, at the time, is not conscious of 
making these pictures out of its revived experiences ; 
it is only conscious of the phantasms. Phantasy is 
undirected or drifting activity; hence it is called the 



148 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

drifting imagination. Fantasy, fancy, and phantasy 
are merely different forms of the same word. Fancy 
is used in many senses, and is extremely indefinite. 
Drifting imagination is specific, but tends to confuse. 
As phantasy is never used but to designate this facul- 
ty, it is given the preference. Because images are so 
conspicuous in recollections, some use phantasy and 
recollection as synonyms. But the soul, as phantasy, 
does no recollecting ; it merely weaves its recollec- 
tions, without intention or effort, into new forms. Rep- 
resentation, as phantasy, conjoins revived experiences, 
forming phantasms. 

r Phantasy. 
Names. — •< Fantasy, or Fancy. 

(. Drifting Imagination. 

4. Imagination is the power of self to represent in- 
tentionally his past experiences in new forms, called 
ideals. Self, as memory, reproduces his experiences ; 
self, as imagination, manufactures out of these experi- 
ences ideals. Memory, in this form of representation, is 
subordinate, merely furnishing materials; imagination 
is the master builder. Imagination is the capability to 
evolve the ideal from the actual. All agree in calling 
the power of the soul purposely to create, or construct, 
or form ideals, imagination. To distinguish imagina- 
tion proper from reproductive imagination or memory, 
and from drifting imagination or phantasy, it is some- 
times called the creative or constructive imagination. 
Imagination, unmodified, best designates this power. 

Imagination. 
Names. — ■{ Constructive Imagination. 
Creative Imagination. 



REPRESENTATION— GENERAL VIEW. 149 

5. Representative knowledge is re -knowledge. 
Knowledge gained directly is intuitive knowledge, or 
original knowledge, or presentative knowledge, or per- 
ceptive knowledge ; but when we re-know, our cogni- 
tions are called re-knowledgc, or representative knowl- 
edge, or revived knowledge. 

(Memories. 
Phantasms. 
Ideals. 

6. Memories are reproduced experiences. The origi- 
nal experiences or old forms are recalled just as they 
were experienced. Products of memory are repro- 
duced acquisitions. "When we recall our experiences 
unchanged, we call them memories, recollections, or 
remembrances. Remembered percepts are simply re- 
percepts. Remembered concepts are merely re-con- 
cepts. Remembered judgments are re- judgments. 

Misleading. — To call memory-products concepts or conceptions 
is misleading. This relic of the old psychology tends to confuse 
the learner. A concept is a general notion, and conception is the 
power to discern general notions. These terms are thus used in 
logic and literature as well as in modern psychology. 

r Memories. Re-percepts. 

Recollections. Re-concepts. 
Memory-Products are called— \ Remembrances. 

Conceptions (obsolete and mislead- 
, ing). 

7. Phantasms are crude mental pictures which 
seem to oe realities. "Webster says: "A phantasm is 
an image formed by the mind and supposed to be 
real." The soul, out of its revived experiences, spon- 
taneously forms a panorama for its own amusement. 
These moving scenes appear to be objective realities, 



150 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

and self seems to be a spectator. The products of 
phantasy take various 



Names. 



Phantasms. 

Phantasies and Fancies. 
Dreams and Reveries. 
Air-castles, etc. 



8. Ideals are ideas and objects blended,. Out of its 
revived experiences the soul, as imagination, constructs 
new forms, called ideals. Ideals are created out of 
reals, and may become realities. Out of his experiences 
the inventor creates an ideal steam-engine. When he 
builds the engine, the ideal becomes a reality. The 
products of imagination take various 



Names. 



Ideals. 

Imaginations. 
Creations of Imagination. 
[ Etc. 

S UG GE STIVE STUD 7-HINT8. 

Place on your left the diagrams of the three perceptive powers, 
and on your right the diagrams of the three representative powers. 
With these before you study Chapter XII. Compare the faculties 
named, topic by topic. 

Keep constantly in mind the important fact that in its action, 
as in its nature, the mind is a unit, and that a faculty is merely a 
distinct capability of the soul. 

State the office of each of the presentative and representative 
powers. Give the characteristics of each. Define each. Name the 
products of each of these powers. 

Could there be representation without perception ? Could there 
be phantasy without memory ? Does imagination imply memory ? 

References. — For a more elaborate treatment of representation, 
the student is referred to " Human Intellect," Porter ; " Simple Cog- 
nitive Powers," McCosh ; " Outlines of Psychology," Sully. 



PART IV. 
THE THOUGHT FACULTIES. 



CHAPTER XIV.— Conception. 

X V. — JlTDG M ENT. 

XVI.— Reason. 
XVII. — Thought-Knowing— General View. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL PYRAMID. 

=! THE WILL 
^ I POWERS. 

THE 
EMOTIONS. 



h- 

u. 

o 



_J 

CD 

o 



PHYSICAL 
FEELINGS. 



INSTINCTS. 



THE 
THINKING 
POWERS. 



REASON. 

JUDGMENT. 

CONCEPTION. 



REASONS. 
(JUDGMENTS.! 
.CONCEPTS.' 



/REPRESENT-] 
ATIVE 

POWERS. 



IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 



IDEALS. 

|PHANTASMS.l c 
o 
MEMORIES. 1 



THE 

/PERCEPTIVE/ 

POWERS. 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 



iNOUMENAL- 
PERCEPTS. 

1 CONSCIOUS-! 
PERCEPTS. 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS. 



FOURTH PART. 



THOUGHT-KNOWING, OR THE COMPARATIVE 
POWERS. 

These are our capabilities to discern relations. Self, 
as perception, gains the elements of knowledge ; and 
self, as thought, elaborates these elements into higher 
forms. That we may discover relations, we compare ; 
and that we may digest elementary notions, we reflect. 
This group of faculties is known by the following 



Names. < 



The Thought-Powers. 

The Comparative Powers. 

The Elaborative Faculties. 

The Logical Powers. 

The Reflective Faculties. 

The Understanding (indefinite). 



Each name is expressive and specific. Omitting the 
last, these names may be used interchangeably. 

The universe is a unit. Each individual, each group 
of individuals, and each system of groups, is a related 
part of one stupendous whole. Thinking is discerning 
relations. 

First, we discover relations of similarity, and think 
individuals into classes. Our capability to discern class- 
relations and thus gain general notions is termed our 
classifying power, or conception. 



154 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Second, we discover truth-relations, and think no- 
tions into sentences. Our capability to discern and 
predicate truth-relations is termed judgment. 

Third, we discover that each thing is in some causal 
way related to every other thing. Causes and effects, 
means and ends, conditions and dependencies, ante- 
cedents and consequents, ratios and proportions, ele- 
ments and compounds, in myriad forms unite all things 
into infinite series of cause-relations. We discern cause- 
relations and think conclusions. Our power to discern 
cause-relations and think judgments into arguments is 

called reason. 

i Conception. 

The Thinking Faculties. — < Judgment. 

(. Reason. 

You observe this figure, and this, and this. You 
discern that they are alike in being rectangular and 
having four equal sides. You discern the group-notion, 
square figures. Your power to do this is called concep- 
tion. You know the meaning of the notions vertebrate 
and horse. You discern the agreement of these notions, 
and say the horse is a vertebrate. Your power to dis- 
cern the agreement of notions is called judgment. As 
all animals are endowed with instinct, and as the dog is 
an animal, you discern the conclusion that dogs are en- 
dowed with instinct. Your power to infer conclusions 
is termed reason. 

Self, as conception, elaborates percepts into con- 
cepts ; self, as judgment, elaborates concepts into judg- 
ments; and self, as reason, elaborates judgments into 
reasons. 



CONCEPTION. 155 

CHAPTER XIV. 

CONCEPTION. 

By this is meant the power to think individuals 
into classes. Our percepts are notions of individual 
things. Between individuals we discern relations. I 
perceive this block, and this, and this, and this. They 
differ as to size and proportion, but I see that they are 
related as to the number of sides. I think these three- 
sided figures into one class. As the notion three-sided- 
ness is common to all three-sided figures, it is called a 
general notion or a concept. 

We discern general notions through individual no- 
tions, as 

N - o - u - n isa general notion. 



03 


to 


U5 



John and Ohio and (a) boy and (a) book are individual no- 
tions. Percepts are our scaffolding to enable us to think 
up to concepts. We discern the name-relation between 
John, Ohio, etc., and think all name-words into one 
class. Noun is a concept. Verb is a concept. All 
class-notions are concepts. 

Acts of Conception Analyzed. — You observe these 
blocks of various forms and sizes. You decide to con- 
sider them with reference to the number of sides. You 
abstract the property, number of sides. You leave out 
of view everything else. You now compare the several 
12 



156 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

figures. You discern common properties. This, and 
this, and this, have three sides ; this, and this, aud this, 
four sides. You generalize — discern a general proper- 
ty. You now classify the figures with reference to the 
common property. You collect them into groups. This 
group of three-sided figures you call triangles. You 
discern the group-notion or the concept, triangle. This 
group of four sided figures you call quadrilaterals. You 
discern the group-notion or the concept, quadrilateral. 
So with the concepts pentagon, hexagon, etc. Draw 
the scaffolding, and analyze the act of forming the 
concept pencil / also, the concept tree j also, the con- 
cept lake / also, the concept quadruped. 

Elements of Conception. — From the analysis you dis- 
cover the steps or processes by which the mind reaches 
concepts. Analytic observation, abstraction, generali- 
zation, and classification are processes of thinking things 
into classes. Self, as conception, advances by these 
steps in gaining group notions. 

1. Analytic observation. You perce : ve things having properties. 
Here you have a collection of leaves. This leaf is oval, its veins are 
parallel, its edges are dentate. You observe this leaf, and this, and 
this, and note peculiarities. Observing things as having properties 
and parts is called analytic observation. The first step in elabora- 
tion is necessarily analytic. We must discriminate before we can 
assimilate. 

2. Abstraction. You decide to consider leaves with reference to 
shape. You abstract shape and disregard the veins, edges, etc. Draw- 
ing out one quality and considering things with reference to this, 
regardless of other qualities, is called abstraction. Above, we con- 
sidered figures with reference to number of sides. You may give 
other examples of abstraction! You discover how you get your no- 
tions of attributes. These notions you call abstract ideas, as red- 
ness, hardness, dullness, roundness, goodness, etc. 

3. Comparison. Putting leaves side by side, you compare them, 



CONCEPTION. 157 

and thus discern relations of likeness. As you have abstracted 
shape, you compare the leaves as to shape, and find points of agree- 
ment as well as of disagreement. Discerning resemblances is called 
comparison. 

4. Generalization. You discover a common something; you 
generalize ; you find a general property. This leaf, and this, and 
this, are ovate. Ovateness is general to these leaves. This leaf, and 
this, and this, are lanceolate. Lanceolateness is general to these 
leaves. Finding a property common to several objects is called gen- 
eralization. Above we generalized and found the common proper- 
ties of the figures to be three-sidedness, four-sidedness, etc. 

5. Classification. You now arrange the leaves in groups with 
reference to the general property, shape, and name the groups. 
This group you call ovate ; this, lanceolate ; this, cordate. You 
gain the class notions — ovate, lanceolate, cordate — and designate 
them by these names. The act of conception is complete. Group- 
ing objects into classes with reference to general properties is called 
classification. The second step in elaboration is synthetic ; we first 
discriminate, and then assimilate. You may classify books with 
reference to color of binding, and point out and define the five 
elements of conception. You may classify these roses with refer- 
ence to color, and point out the steps. 

Office of Conception. — Self, as conception, discerns 
relations of similarity between things, and thus thinks 
many individuals as one class. You perceive this tree, 
and this, and this. You compare them, and find that 
they have the common property — apple-bearing. You 
think them into one class — apple-tree. The mind, as 
thought, can not well deal with the trees of the for- 
est or the inhabitants of the sea as individuals; but, 
endowed with conception, we are able to think myriads 
of individuals into a few classes. As sensations are the 
materials out of which sense-percepts are made, so per- 
cepts are the elements out of which concepts are made. 
Discerning concepts, through percepts, is the office of 
conception. 



158 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Characteristics of Conception. — We perceive particu- 
lar notions, but think general notions : 

1. As conception, self discerns many as one. The 
millions of acorn-bearing trees are oaks. The billions 
of back-boned animals are vertebrates. 

2. As conception, self elaborates percepts into con- 
cepts. From the percepts, this bird, and this, and this, 
I elaborate the concept bird. I discriminate various 
kinds of fruit, and assimilate such as have common 
properties into classes, and call these group-notions 
peach, apple, pear. 

3. As conception, self gives names to general no- 
tions. Thus, the general notion, four-footedness is em- 
bodied in the word quadruped. Things are realities, 
and the relations between things are realities. Things 
and relations exist independent of the mind. We dis- 
cern the relations of resemblance, and think things into 
groups. We call these group-notions concepts. We 
give to our general notions names ; as noun, verb, ad- 
jective. 

4. As conception, self discerns, but does not picture, 
group-notions. We think three-sidedness, but we can 
not picture a triangle at once isosceles, equilateral, and 
right-angled. We can picture only the concrete indi- 
vidual thing. We can picture this cow, but we can not 
picture mammal. 

Conception defined. — Conception is the power to dis- 
cern group-notions. 

1. Conception is the soul-energy to think many into 
one. We think many individuals into one class. We 
discern class-relations, and elaborate percepts into con- 
cepts. 



CONCEPTION. 159 

2. Original Express clearly in your own words 
your view of conception. Illustrate. 

3 Various Definitions.-l. Schuyler: Conception is the capa- 
bility to form general notions. 2. Porter : Conception is the power 
to form concepts. 3. Sully: Conception is the power to form gen- 
eral notions. 4. McCosh: The power to discover relations of re- 
semblance. 5. Day: Conception is the power of the intelligence 
itself to conceive general notions. 

r Concepts. 

) General Notions or General Ideas. 
Products of Conception.- J Group . Notions or Group-Ideas. 

\ Class-Notions. 
Concept, that which is grasped or held together, ad- 
mirably expresses the meaning. We discern the rela- 
tions of resemblance between these animals, grasping 
them together as one class ; we call this class of ani- 
mals dogs. As the notion is common to all these ani- 
mals, it Is a general notion ; and as it grasps together 
all these animals, it is a class-notion or group-notion. 
All class-notions are concepts. A concept is a notion 
of objects grasped together through common properties. 

Concepts of Objects and of Attributes.-You observe this red 
rose, this red bird, and this red sky. You gain two concepts: red 
obiects and redness. You test this hard wood, this hard iron and 
this hard glass; you gain the concepts, hard objects and hardness. 
Redness, hardness, brightness, etc., are general notions of properties 
of obiects. As the properties are abstracted from the objects, these 
terms are called abstract concepts, abstract ideas, abstract nouns. 
But the distinction is not deemed material. A concept is ever a 

general notion. 

Properties of Concepts.-Self, as conception, discerns group-no- 
tions, and gives names to these notions. I discern the group-notion 
three-sidedness, and call this notion triangle. General notions take 

general names : T 

1. Denomination is the giving to a class-notion a class-name. 1 



160 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



z 




mi 

i-i 

<; 

tti 

m; 


_1! 




< 




o 
in 


< ! 


<l 


< 


< 




^ 


Li! 




S 


O 




UJ 


H | 


H! 


^^-^<! 




3 




1- 


< ] 


Ki, — " 


s] 




< 




X 




^m; 






O 




UJ 




^--^>j 











SUBSTANCE, 



COriPOREAL, 



INCORPOREAL, 



think many resembling things into one class. I gain a class-notion. 
I now give the notion a name, which is used as a sign to represent the 
class-notion. I think wheat, corn, oats, barley into oneness. I call 
the concept grain. The notion of an individual object is a percept, 
but a general notion always extends to several individuals. The 

concept may be embodied 
in a general term. Mineral 
is a general name represent- 
ing a general notion. 

2. Extension has refer- 
ence to the number of in- 
dividuals embraced in the 
concept. The concept man 
extends to more individuals 
than the concept Caucasian, 
Animal has much greater 
extension than mammal. 
A general notion always 
extends to several individ- 
uals, and, the more indi- 
viduals embraced, the great- 
er the extension. Fruit 
has greater extension than 
lemon. 

3. Intension, or inclu- 
sion, has reference to the 
number of common attri- 
butes included in the con- 
cept. A concept includes 
a greater or less number of 

and others, common properties. The 



SOCRATES, 



CONCEPTION. 161 

attributes of the individual are very numerous. The lower the class, 
the greater the number of common attributes. Birds have few com- 
mon attributes ; vertebrates fewer ; animals fewer. As the exten- 
sion becomes greater, the intension becomes less. As intension in- 
creases, extension decreases. Illustrate this by the preceding and 
the following figures. 

Remark. The concept man includes more common character- 
istics than the concept animal ; but the concept animal extends to 
many more individuals. Man has the greater intension ; animal 
the greater extension. 



Terms used. — 



1. Individuals. 

2. Species. 

3. Genera. 

4. Families, Orders, etc. 



Individual, Species, and Genus. — General notions may 
include larger and larger generalizations. In the classified 
sciences, botany, zoology, geology, and chemistry, special 
nomenclatures are used. But individual, species, and 
genus are terms common to all sciences and all litera- 
ture. With the thought-pyramid before you, study and 
illustrate these terms. 

1. An individual is one of a species. Notions of 
individual things are always percepts. Through per- 
cepts we discern concepts. All class-notions are con- 
cepts. The individual is simply one of a class of things. 
Name the individuals in the figures. 

2. A species is a group of individuals having one 
or more common characteristics. The right-angled tri- 
angle is a species of triangle. The greyhound is a spe- 
cies of dog. The pippin is a species of apple. 

Species, in zoology and botany, is a class sprung from a com- 
mon stock. A species of animals is a group that has or may have 
descended from a single pair. In this work, as in logic and litera- 
ture, a species means one of the classes into which a higher class ->r 



162 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

genus may be divided; as, vertebrates, articulates, mollusks, and 
radiates are species of the genus animal. 

3. A genus is a group of species having one or 
more common characteristics. Man is the genus of 
which Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and 
Malayan are species. Metal is a genus of which gold, 
silver, copper, iron, etc., are species. Triangle is a 
genus of which equilateral triangle is a species. 

4. A lower genus "becomes a species of a higher ge- 
nus. Apple is a genus of which pippin is a species ; 
but apple is a species of the genus fruit. Man is a 
species of mammal. Illustrate by the cut. 

5. Comprehension. I perceive this orange. I ap- 
prehend it as an object. I gain the notion, this orange. 
Self, as perception, apprehends or gains percepts. I 
discern the general notion — orange. I also discern the 
higher notion — fruit — and say the orange is a fruit. I 
now know the orange in its relations — I comprehend it. 
Self, as conception, comprehends or knows things in 
their relations. Illustrate by the thought-pyramid. 

6. Nomenclature of a special science. Zoology gives us — 
Animal Kingdom, 

Branches, 

Classes, 
Orders, 

Families, 

Genera, 

Species, 

Individuals. 

Botany, geology, chemistry, etc., must necessarily have special 
nomenclatures. 

Science deals only incidentally with this apple or that rose ; it 
deals with individuals merely to discover relations of similarity. 
The individual is an objective reality. In the individual are found 



CONCEPTION. 



163 



the common features of the class. The class-notion or concept is a 
thought-product. Science deals with concepts. 

Classification and Definition. — We analyze when we 
separate a whole into its parts, but we synthesize when 
we put the parts together to make a whole. You at 
every step break up complex wholes into simpler parts, 
that you may conquer in detail. You crown your vic- 
tory by recombining the parts into old or new wholes. 
You observe that these processes supplement each oth- 
er, and enter into all thinking. Ascending, we dis- 
criminate as well as assimilate ; descending, we assimi- 
late as well as discriminate ; but in the first, the process 
is pre-eminently synthetic, while analysis predominates 
in the second. Beginning at the base, let us cautiously 
ascend and afterward descend the 

THOUGHT-PYRAMID.* 







| BEING. | 










BEINGS. 











ORGANIC BEINGS. 




•9 
< 


o 
o 
<*• 


ANIMALS. 


o 




VERTEBRATES. 




O 
<0 


<* 




MAMMALS. 




<5> 

o 
o 


A. 

to 




MAN, 









CAUCASIAN. 




COR/ 


\, MARY, JAMES. RALPH 


SUSIE, 


ETC. 
















* Hopkins. 

















1(34: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Conception is our classifying power. "We perceive 
individuals and discern resemblances. Through resem- 
blances we think individuals into classes. We form 
concepts and give names to these class-notions. This 
is classification. 

Definition is referring the thing defined to a higher 
class, and giving the characteristic differences. Each 
step upward necessitates definition as well as classifica- 
tion. Logical definition alone is considered here. 

1. Caucasian. You perceive Cora, Mary, James, etc. You no- 
tice that they resemble one another in color, and you think of them 
as white persons. You 

thus get the concept, 
white race, and you ex- 
press this general notion 
by the word Caucasian. 
You now define this Caucasian = 

word by referring it to 
its genus and giving 
its distinctive feature. 
Caucasian is the white 
race, or 

Now work out and define the concepts Mongolian, Ethiopian, 
American, and Malayan. 

2. Man. You find that the several races resemble one another in 
being rational. You discern the notion, rational animals, in which 
you include all the races. You call this notion human race, or man. 
Wider analytic observation 
leads to the discovery that the 
highest order of animals, in- 
cluding man, give suck to their 

young. You now comprehend, ~\J[ an i 

and hence can define, man. 
Man is a rational mammal ; or 

3. Mammal. By wider syn- 
thesis you group into one class 
all suck-giving animals. These 





CONCEPTION. 



165 



Mammal = 




Vertebrate = 



you term mammalia. A 
still wider analysis brings 
out the fact that all 
mammals are vertebrates. 
Then mammals are suck- 
giving vertebrates, or 

Grouping with ref- 
erence to distribution, 
you may work out and 
define the concepts aerial 
mammals, aquatic mam- 
mals, and terrestrial mammals. Define biological species ; logical. 

4. Vertebrates. You find out that other beings as well as mam- 
malia are backboned. Thus related, you think all creatures having 
spinal columns into 
one class — vertebrates. 
You here discover that 
vertebrates belong to a 
great kingdom. You 
now define : Verte- 
brates are backboned 
animals, or 

You may now 
work out and define 
the concepts articu- 
lates, mollusks, radiates, and protozoans. Give examples of each. 

5. Animals. By a comprehensive synthesis you unite all creat- 
ures endowed with animal life into one class, called the animal 
kingdom, or animals. But you discover beings besides animals pos- 
sessing organs. Now you 

comprehend animal as an 
organic being endowed 
with animal life and sen- 
sation, or 

Work up to and de- A n i m nl 
fine the concept, plant. 

6. Organic beings. 
By a sweeping synthesis 
you unite all beings hav- 
ing life, animal and vege- 






166 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

table, into a single class. You think — organic world. You discover 
also an inorganic world. But you discern a relation between 
organic and in- 
organic things — 
being. You com- 
prehend organic 
being as beings 
having life, or Organic Being =1 

You may work 
up and define the 
concept, inorganic. 

7. Beings are. 
This is all that can 
be said. Extension can be carried no further. You can not com- 
prehend, and hence can not define, being. You have reached the 
limits of thought. You have for the base of your pyramid sense- 
percepts, and for its apex a necessary idea. All thought-cycles 
are similar, beginning in phenomena and ending in noumena. 

Conception and other Faculties. — The soul is a unit. 
A faculty is merely a capability of the soul. Concep- 
tion is simply self classifying things : 

1. Perception supplies raw material ; conception 
elaborates crude percepts into finished concepts. Per- 
cepts must be, in order that concepts may be. Here we 
find a key to correct teaching. 

2. Memory makes present again our percepts, ena- 
bling us to view them side by side. We can thus discern 
resemblances and think sameness. "Without memory, 
conception would be impossible. When we recall our 
percepts, we call them re-percepts ; so when we recall 
our concepts, we term them re-concepts, or remembered 
concepts. 

3. Imagination and phantasy obscurely outline gen- 
eral notions ; but the triangle appears without corners 
and the soldier without weapons. Still, these vague 



CONCEPTION. 167 

outlines assist us to clear notions. We can not imagine 
a concept. Why ? Illustrate. 

4. Judgment and reason make large contributions. 
Indeed, every act of classification, as will be seen fur- 
ther on, involves these powers. 

Comparative Psychology. — Can the brute discern gen- 
eral notions ? The brute perceives things and notices 
resemblances, but can it think sameness ? The brute 
discerns concrete objects, but does it discern abstract 
qualities? Can it think the many into one? Is the 
brute endowed with even rudimentary conception? 
Does any brute use intelligently abstract words to ex- 
press general ideas ? Science, at the present time, can 
only give negative answers to these questions. 

1. Man thinks individual notions into concepts ; the 
brute perceives individuals, but is incapable of forming 
general notions. 

2. Man uses language ; the brute is dumb. The in- 
stinctive cry of the brute is not language. Only man 
is endowed with the power to form and express abstract 
notions. 

Growth of Conception. — Children, when two or three 
years old, make crude classifications. Boys and girls 
classify the objective world. Youths master the classi- 
fications of sciences. Men master systems. The steady 
growth of this power is manifest from year to year. 

Education of Conception.* — Development of concep- 
tion extends mental power almost infinitely. I think 
mammal, and it is equal to perceiving millions of indi- 
viduals. You are able easily to think myriads into a 
few classes. Thus you make science. " The training 

* See " Applied Psychology." 



168 ELEMENTAKY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

of conception should begin in connection with sense- 
observation. Objects should be laid in juxtaposition, 
and the child invited to discover their similarities of 
form, color, etc. And here his active impulses may be 
appealed to by giving him a confused multitude of ob- 
jects and inviting him to sort them into classes. By 
such a direct inspection of a number of examples to- 
gether, notions of simple classes of natural objects, as 
species of animals and flowers, as well as of geometric 
forms and numbers, may be gained. A sufficient variety 
of instances must be supplied in every case, but the 
number required will differ according to the character 
of the notion to be formed. This operation of com- 
paring and classifying should be supplemented by 
naming the objects thus grouped together, and pointing 
out in the form of a definition the more important of 
the traits they have in common." * " The material ob- 
jects, chalk, salt, coal, and the common metals, will af- 
ford us numerous lessons ; and so will the series of in- 
quiries into the nature, properties, and action of water. 
For form we may use the regular solids, surfaces, and 
lines, while botany and natural history will provide an 
inexhaustible supply of lessons on life. The main 
thing will be to make sure that the child states, in clear, 
unambiguous language (which he understands), only 
such facts as he has really observed.'''' f 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — Climb the tree (p. 56) and ascend the pyramid (p. 152) 
to conception, giving definition, office, and product of each faculty. 
Give the distinction between perception and representation, etc. 

* Sully. t George P. Brown. 



CONCEPTION. 169 

What is thinking? Why are the thinking faculties called the 
comparative powers ? Why the logical powers ? The elaborative 
faculties ? The reflective faculties ? Give the meaning of discern. 
(We perceive things having properties, and discern relations be- 
tween things.) 

What is meant by conception ? Analyze two of your acts of 
conception. Tell what you do. Place on the board a diagram 
showing how you think up to general notions. 

First step. What do you mean by analytic observation ? Illus- 
trate. Why does this come first ? Second step. What do you mean 
by abstraction? Illustrate. Give etymology of the word. What 
kind of concepts are hardship? beauty? goodness? Third step. 
What do you mean by comparison? Illustrate. What do you 
discern ? Fourth step. What do you mean by generalization ? 
Illustrate. Which do you do first, abstract or generalize ? Fifth 
step. What do you mean by classification ? Illustrate. 

State the office of conception. Illustrate. Out of what are 
sense-percepts made ? Concepts ? 

Name the first characteristic of conception ; the second ; the 
third. How do imagination and conception differ ? 

Give author's definition of conception ; yours ; Schuyler's. Why 
do you object to Day's ? 

What are the products of conception called ? What is a con- 
cept? Illustrate. Why are concepts called general notions? group- 
notions? class-notions? Give distinctions between percepts and 
concepts. Are the terms, idea and notion, synonyms ? 

What are the properties of a concept ? What do you mean by 
denomination? Give five examples. What do you mean by exten- 
sion ? Illustrate by the thought-pyramid, beginning at the bottom. 
What do you mean by intention? Illustrate by the thought-pyra- 
mid, beginning at the top. 

What do you mean by an individual ? by a species ? by a genus ? 
Give five examples of each. Give the distinction between appre- 
hension and comprehension. Give five examples. In what sense is 
species used in zoology ? in logic ? 

W'hat distinction do you make between analysis and synthesis ? 
Why do you analyze ? Synthesize ? What is a logical definition ? 
Write on the boai-d, in two forms, definitions of Ethiopian, man, 
mammal, vertebrate, vegetable, inorganic. Why can not being be 
defined ? 



170 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Give the relation of conception to perception ; to memory ; to 
imagination ; to judgment. 

Letter. — Write with great care a letter to your friend, giving a 
clear account of conception. As this is the most difficult of the 
mental powers to master, you may ask your friend to study it pa- 
tiently and work it out. 

Analysis of Chapter XIV. 

I. Illustrations. 

Percepts. Concepts. 

II. Acts of Conception analyzed. 

Pencil. Tree. Lake. 

III. Elements of an Act of Conception. 

Analytic observation. Generalization. 

Abstraction. Classification. 

Comparison. 

IV. Office of Conception. 

To gain concepts. To name concepts. 

V. Characteristics of Conception. 

Discerning concepts. Thinking, but not picturing. 

Naming concepts. 

VI. Definitions of Conception. 

Author's. Original. Various. 

VII. Names of Products of Conception. 

Concepts. Group-notions. 

General notions. Class-notions. 

VIII. Properties of Concepts. 

Denomination. Intention or inclusion. 

Extension. 

IX. General Nomenclatures. 

Individual. Species. Genus. 

X. Definition. 

Refers to a higher class. Gives the differentia. 

XI. Comparative Psychology. 
XII. Growth and Education of Conception. 



JUDGMENT. 171 

CHAPTER XV. 

JUDGMENT. 

By this is meant the power to discern the agree- 
ment or disagreement of ideas. You say tlie mountain 
is high ; here you discern and declare the agreement 
between the notions high and mountain. Perceptive- 
knowledge and thought-knowledge differ in two re- 
spects : 1. We gain perceptive-knowledge intuitively 
but reach thought - knowledge by processes of elab- 
oration. 2. Percej^tive - knowledge is concrete, while 
thought-knowledge is abstract. Concepts are our first 
thought-products. "We think things into classes by dis- 
cerning relations of resemblance. As the reaper binds 
the wheat in bundles, so we think individual things 
into groups. Judgments are our next higher thought- 
products. We discover that ideas are so related as to 
agree or disagree. Self, as judgment, discerns and as- 
serts the agreement and disagreement of notions. We 
discern truth-relations, which we express in sentences. 

Analysis of Acts of Judgment. — The horse is a 



vertebrate. ( horse ) ) All x is y. 





I discern and assert the agreement of the notions ver- 
tebrate and horse, and also that of x and y. Discern- 
ing and asserting the agreement of notions is called 
13 



172 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION, 
judging. Bees are not vertebrates ; w is not x. 




I discern the disagreement of 




the notions bee and vertebrate ; also of w and so. Dis- 
cerning and asserting the disagreement of notions is 
called judging. The capability to discern the agree- 
ment or disagreement of notions is termed judgment. 



The oyster is a moll ask. 



The Chinese are not Caucasians. 



I discern agreement between the notions oyster and 
mollusk, and that the former is included in the latter. 
I express this agreement by saying the oyster is a mol- 
lusk. I discern disagreement between the notions Chi- 
nese and Caucasian, and that one is not included in the 
other, and I express this disagreement by saying that 
the Chinese are not Caucasians. 

Office of Judgment. — Self, as judgment, elaborates 
percepts and concepts into truths ; as, Pope was a poet ; 
Burr was not a patriot. In discerning the agreement 
and disagreement of notions we discern truths. 

1. The mind, as judgment, discerns the agreement 
or disagreement of notions. This is primary. We 



JUDGMENT. 173 

find that ideas are so related as to agree or disagree. 
We discern agreement between the notions wise and 
Bacon. 

2. The mind, as judgment, asserts the agreement or 
disagreement of notions. We not only discern the re- 
lation between the ideas, but we also assert agreement ; 
as, Bacon was wise. 

3. The mind, as judgment, elaborates notions into 
truths. The evolution of truth is pre-eminently the 
office of judgment. In discerning the agreement of 
two notions you discern a truth ; as, the earth is 
round. 

Characteristics of Judgment. — The following marks 
distinguish this capability : 

1. Self, as judgment, discerns truth-relations. No- 
tions agree, as, silver is a metal. The agreement is real, 
is true. Judgment is our capability to discern this 
agreement. Beings destitute of judgment are incapa- 
ble of cognizing truth. 

2. Self, as judgment, thinks notions into proposi- 
tions. Judgment is our sentence-making power. We 
discern and predicate truth-relations. Each declarative 
sentence expresses an act of judgment. 

3. Self, as judgment, accepts his predications as true. 
When the predication accords with reality, we accept 
the proposition as true ; but when the predication does 
not accord with reality, we reject the proposition as 
false. Judgment is an essential element of belief. I 
believe, or accept as true, that Columbus discovered 
America; but I disbelieve, or reject as false, that Wash- 
ington was King of England. Because I have the power 
to discern truth relation, I accept as true my predications. 



174 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

„ „ , , , ( Discernment of truth-relations. 

Elements of Judgment. 1 A , , ,, ,. , 

° ( Assent to truth discerned. 

1. As judgment, self discerns truth-relations. No- 
tions agree ; this agreement is termed truth-relation, 
since the assertion of the agreement is either true or 
untrue. Space is infinite ; Csesar was perfect ; as judg- 
ment, the soul discerns the truth of the first proposition, 
and the untruth of the second. 

2. As judgment, self assents to truth discerned. 
The soul discerns truth and accepts it. Truth is har- 
mony with reality. The soul is so constituted that it 
believes its predications of truth-relations. I discern 
the agreement of the notions man and biped, and I 
accept as true that man is a biped. I believe it. 

Judgment defined. — Judgment, judging, and a judg- 
ment represent the faculty, the act, and the product. 
Judging is the act of predicating the agreement or dis- 
agreement of notions. A judgment is the expression of 
the agreement or disagreement of notions. A judg- 
ment is called a proposition or a sentence. 

1. Judgment is the mental power to discern and 
predicate the agreement or disagreement of notions; as, 
I discern the agreement of the notions man and animal, 
and make the predication that man is an animal. I 
also discern the disagreement of the notions bird and 
mammal, and make the predication that birds are not 
mammals. 

2. Original. You may write your definition of 
judgment and give illustrations. What is judging ? 
What is a judgment ? 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Stormouth : Judgment is the faculty 
to discern truth. 2. McCosh : Judgment is the power to compare 



JUDGMENT. 175 

notions as to agreement or disagreement. 3. Sully : Judgment is 
the capability to predicate one idea of another. 4. Hamilton : Judg- 
ment is the power to recognize the relation of congruence or conflict 
between notions. 5. Dewey : Judgment is the power to refer ideas 
to realities, and affirm truth-relations. 6. Dunton : Judgment is the 
faculty of the mind by which we know the relation between two ob- 
jects of knowledge. 

Terms of a Judgment. — We discern the congruence 
or incongruence of notions, and predicate these truth- 
relations. A judgment embodied in language is called 
a proposition or a sentence, and consists of three parts : 
subject, predicate, and copula. The terms (from ter- 
mini, extremes) are the subject and predicate. 

1. The subject is the basis of the judgment. It is 
that of which we assert the agreement or disagree- 
ment. The subject is always a noun, or some word or 
expression used as such. It may be a percept, as, Arnold 
was a traitor ; or a concept, as, some girls are studious. 

2. The predicate is that which is affirmed or denied 
of the subject. The copula and predicate are often con- 
densed into one term ; as, God is. When expanded, we 
have the regular form, God is existing. The predicate 
is always a concept. 

3. The copula expresses the act of judging. Because 
it unites the terms of the judgment, it is called the 
copula. It is present in every act of judgment, either 
expressed or included in the predicate. 

Properties and Classification of Judgments. — In logic, 
judgments are classified with reference to quantity, 
quality, relation, modality, etc. For full treatment of 
this topic, the student is referred to works on logic. 
Psychology seeks merely to unfold the nature of the 
judging activity. 



176 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Judgments 
may be 
classified 



As to Quantity. 



As to Quality. 



Universal. 

Particular. 

j Universal. 
Affirmative, i -r, ,. , 

( I articular. 

( Universal. 
Negative. < p art icular. 



As to Relation. (Categorical. 

I Hypothetical. 

i Possible. 
Probable. 
Certain. 



As to Process. 



Analytic. 

Synthetic 



1. Quantity refers to the extension of the subject. 
As to quantity, judgments are universal or particular. 
(1.) Universal judgments are those in which the predi- 
cation is of the entire class ; as, all men are fallible ; 
all a? is y • no man is perfect ; no w is x. (2.) Par- 
ticular judgments are those in which the predication is 
of a percept or of a part of a class ; as, Mary is wise ; 
some boys are studious ; some y is x / some boys are 
not studious ; some y is not x. Give five examples, 
and illustrate by figures. 

2. Quality refers to the congruence or incongruence 
of notions. As to quality, judgments are affirmative or 
negative. (1.) Positive judgments predicate the con- 
gruence of notions ; as, all elephants are quadrupeds ; 
some men are wise. Give live universal affirmative 
judgments and five particular affirmatives. (2.) Nega- 
tive judgments predicate the incongruence of notions ; 
as, no bird is a mammal ; some men are not wise. Give 
five universal negative and five particular negative 
judgments, illustrating by figures. 



JUDGMENT. 177 

Judgment and other Faculties. — In gaining concepts 
we necessarily judge. Percepts and concepts are the 
materials out of which we make judgments. Re-percepts 
and re-concepts are simply remembered percepts and 
concepts. Re-judgments are remembered judgments. 
Imagination helps in arranging the materials. Self, as 
judgment, discerns the truth-relations between notions. 
Reason enables us to compare judgments and infer con- 
clusions. It is clear that judgment enters in some 
form into all distinct knowing ; and it is equally cer- 
tain that judging involves all the other intellectual 
powers. The soul is a unit in knowing. 

Comparative Psychology. — The brute is incapable of 
abstraction, hence can not form concepts. As the predi- 
cate of a judgment is necessarily a concept, it is evident 
that the brute is not endowed with judgment in the sense 
of the capability to discern truth-relations. Many brute 
acts seem to indicate the exercise of judgment, but it is 
believed that all brute activity can be accounted for with- 
out supposing the brute to be endowed with this power. 

Axioms are Necessary Judgments. — Generalizations 
from necessary ideas are necessary judgments. These 
judgments are self-evident truths. They may be veri- 
fied, but can not be proved. All axioms are necessary 
judgments. The parts of this apple are equal to this 
whole. So of this orange and this cube. From my 
intuitive insight into the relations of the parts to the 
whole, I discern the general truth — the parts are equal 
to the whole. The soul perceives directly necessary 
ideas, and from these elaborates self-evident truths. 

Growth of Judgment.* — Conception is exercised ear- 

* See " Education of Judgment," " Applied Psychology." 



178 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

lier than judgment, but at a very early age children 
form crude judgments about food and surroundings. 
At first they use percepts as the subjects of their judg- 
ments. When about three years old, the child begins 
to use concepts as subjects. Now the child becomes 
more careful about his statements as the truth-idea be- 
gins to be realized. Judgment gradually develops, and 
in youth seems to reach full activity, though continu- 
ing to grow throughout active life. 

S UG GESTI VE STUD Y-HINTS. 

Keview. — Give your definition and illustration of conception ; 
of concept ; of abstraction ; of generalization ; of definition. What 
is the material of which we make concepts t concepts ? ideals ? 

What is meant by judgment? Give the distinction between 
perceptive-knowledge and thought-knowledge. What are our first 
thought-products ? What relations of things enable us to think in- 
dividuals into groups ? into sentences ? 

Analyze several of your acts of judgment. What do you dis- 
cern? What relations of notions enable us to think ideas into 
propositions ? Give five examples. 

Give the author's definition of judgment; your definition; 
McCosh's definition ; Hamilton's definition. Define a judgment. 

What are the terms of a judgment ? Define and illustrate. Give 
the properties of a judgment. Define and illustrate. 

Out of what are judgments made % What do you call a remem- 
bered percept? concept? judgment? How does memory help in 
judgment? What aid does imagination give? 

Does the brute judge ? How do you account for the remarkable 
acts of dogs ? foxes ? horses ? elephants ? 

What is a necessary judgment ? Are axioms necessary judg- 
ments? What distinction do you make between a necessary idea 
and a necessary judgment ? 

Do we perceive necessary truths in the abstract ? Illustrate. 

Letter. — You may now write a letter, giving your friend your 
views of judgment. Let all the illustrations be yours. 



JUDGMENT. 179 



Analysis of Chapter XV. 

I. Analysis of an Act of Judgment. 

II. Office of Judgment. 

Discerning agreement. Predicating. 

Discerning disagreement. 

III. Characteristics of Judgment. 

Present in all knowing. Believed or disbelieved. 

True or false. 

IV. Elements. 

Discernment of truth-relations. 
Assent to truth discerned. 

V. Definitions of 

Judgment. — Original. Quoted. 
Judging. A judgment. 

VI. Terms of a Judgment. 

Subject — may be a percept or a concept. 
Predicate — must be a concept. 
Copula. 

VII. Properties and Classes. 

Quantity. — Universal. Particular. 

Quality. — Positive. 

Universal affirmative. 

Universal negative. 
Negative. 

Particular affirmative. 

Particular negative. 

VIII. Judgment, and other Faculties. 

Perception, Conception, and Memory furnish materials. 

Keason tests the judgment. 

Judgment contributes the truth-element to all knowing. 

IX. Comparative Psychology — Brutes not endowed with 
Judgment. 

X. Necessary Judgments. 

XI. Growth and Education of Judgment. 



180 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



CHAPTER XYL 



REASON. 



By tliis is meant our power to reach conclusions. 
As all intentional violation of law is sin, and as fraud 
is intentional violation of law, we reach the conclusion 
that fraud is sin. You reason when you use intelligent- 
ly such terms as "hence," "therefore" "because" etc. 
You arrive at conclusions through judgments. You so 
combine two propositions as to discern, or infer, or 
draw, or reach a conclusion. Your capability to do this 
is called reason. 

Acts of Reason analyzed. — Self, as reason, infers con- 
clusions from premises, and hence is sometimes called 
the power of inference. Let us examine some easy 
acts of reason. 



All birds have wings, 

The thrush is a bird, 

.\ The thrush has wings. 



Rational beings are ac- 
countable, 
Man is rational, 
.*. Man is accountable. 




We accept the first and second judgments as true, 
and through these judgments discern the conclusion. 



REASON. 



181 




Self, as reason, discerns conclusions. Change one term, 
and we have : 



All birds are vertebrates, 

Doves are birds, 

.'. Doves are vertebrates. 



y is x, 
zisy, 
.'. z is x. 



Since doves are birds, and birds are vertebrates, we 
discern the conclusion, doves are vertebrates. So, since 
z is included in y, and y in x, we discern that z is in- 
cluded in x. We call the act reasoning when we dis- 
cern conclusions, and we call the power to discern con- 
clusions reason. 

Cause-Relations. — Self, as reason, discerns cause-rela- 
tions. The relations of causes and effects, means and 
ends, conditions and interdependencies, antecedents and 
consequents, wholes and parts, proportions and analo- 
gies, etc., are discerned through the medium of inter- 
locked judgments. Cause-relations are all-pervading. 
From the atom to the Infinite First Cause, cause-rela- 
tions bind together all things. The universe is a cause- 
unit. Reason is oar capability to discern cause-relations 
and cause-unity. 

Office of Reason. — Self, as reason, discerns cause-rela- 
tions. When we discern class-relations, we conceive; 
when we discern truth-relations, we judge ; but, when 
we discern cause-relations, we reason. 



182 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



1. Self, as reason, infers particulars from gen- 
erals. All things are so related that these inferences 
are safe : 



All minerals are valuable, 
Bismuth is a mineral, 
.*. Bismuth is valuable. 



All M is P, 
All S is M, 
.-. All S is P. 




Granted that all minerals are valuable, we may 
safely infer value of any mineral, however unfa- 
miliar. 

2. Self as reason, infers generals from particulars. 
Since the universe is a cause-unit, and since laws are 
ever the same, we may safely infer general truths from 
particular truths. In this case, and this, and this, light 
diminishes as the square of the distance increases, and 
we safely infer this as a general law. The sum of the 
three angles of this triangle is equal to two right angles ; 
but this triangle represents all triangles ; therefore we 
infer the general truth — the sum of the three angles of 
a triangle is equal to two right angles. 

3. Self, as reason, verifies his conclusions. By 
analysis we reduee our arguments to judgments, our 
judgments to concepts, and our concepts to percepts. 
By synthesis we reconstruct onr arguments. By these 
processes we subject our conclusions to the tests of law 
and reality. 



REASON. 183 

Characteristics of Reason. — The soul, as reason, so 
combines two propositions as to reach a more remote 
truth : 

1. Reason is the power of inference. As all men 
are fallible, we infer that kings are fallible. A being 
without reason is unable to derive truths from other 
truths. Only rational beings draw conclusions. 

2. Reason is the science-making power. In dis- 
cerning truths in their causal relations, we discover 
laws and systematize knowledge. Man is a science- 
maker. 

3. Reason is the power to accept conclusions. Self, 
as reason, accepts his inferences as true. This is called 
intellectual assent or belief. Through the medium of 
the proofs we discern the conclusions that Washington 
was President; that the -earth revolves around the 
sun ; that the square described on the hypotenuse is 
equal to the sum of the squares described on the other 
two sides of a right-angled triangle ; and we accept these 
conclusions as true. We assent to these conclusions ; we 
believe these truths. 

Definitions of Reason. — Self, as reason, discerns new 
truths by comparing other truths. Truths are so related 
that we can infer conclusions from premises. 

1. Reason is the capability to discern conclusions. 
Reason is the power to discern cause-relations. Reason- 
ing is inferring conclusions from premises. A reason 
is the expression of an act of reasoning. 

2. Original definition. Write out and illustrate 
your definition. What do you do when you reason? 
What relation do you discover between the proof and 
the conclusion ? 



184 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



3. Various Definitions. — 1. Sully : Reason is the power to derive 
conclusions from premises. 2. Porter : Reason is the power to dis- 
cern the agreement or disagreement of judgments. 3. McCosh: 
Reason is the power to compare two notions by means of a third. 
4. Bascom: Reason is the capability to reach conclusions by means 
of related judgments. 5. Everest : Reason is the capability to 
combine two propositions, and thus reach a proposition more remote. 
6. Wundt : Reason is the power to unite two judgments in a new 
judgment. 7. Dunton: Reason is the faculty to gain new truth 
through truths already known. 

Logic is the science of the laws of thought. Just now 
you are struggling to understand the thinking powers. 
Later you will study the laws of thought and their appli- 
cations. That we may better understand the reasoning 
process, we will briefly examine the products of reasoning : 

1. Names. A product of reason is termed a reason, 
an argument, or a syllogism. An argument stated in reg- 
ular logical form is called a syllogism. 

Reasons. 
1. Names. — 



Products of Reason 




2. Terms- 



Arguments. 
Syllogisms. 
Major Term. 
Middle Term. 
Minor Term. 

{Major Premise. 
Minor Premise. 
Conclusion. 



All material substances 

gravitate, 
Air is a material substance, 
.*. Air gravitates. 



REASON. 185 

Ordinarily, arguments are informal, as, "Iron is a 
material substance ; .\ iron gravitates." 

2. Terms. A syllogism is an argument in regular 
form, and contains three terms. The major term is the 
predicate, and the minor the subject of the conclusion. 
The middle term is the medium of comparison. 



All B is A, 
All C is B, 
.\ All C is A. 




3. Propositions. In every argument three proposi- 
tions are expressed or implied : (1) the major premise, 
which predicates the agreement or disagreement of the 
middle and major terms ; (2) the minor premise, 
which predicates the agreement or disagreement of the 
minor and middle terms ; (3) the conclusion, which 
predicates the agreement or disagreement of the minor 
and major terms. Point out and explain the terms and 
propositions in the following reasons, and illustrate by 
the figures : 

All responsible agents are free, 

Man is a responsible agent, 

/. Man is free. 

All metals are expanded by heat, 

Zino is a metal, 

.'. Zinc is expanded by heat. 



186 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 




All men are mortal, 

Poets are men, 

.*. Poets are mortal, 



y is x. 
z is y. 

.'. z is x. 



4. Enthymeme. Reasoning is discerning conclusions through 
the medium of premises. Rarely do we express both premises. The 
Americans are free, and therefore happy. The major premise, all 
free people are happy, is understood. A reason with one premise 
suppressed is called an enthymeme. 

But is what we term syllogistic reasoning, reasoning at all! 
Yes, in the sense that all our reasonings, when we state the process 
in full, assume that form. Let the question be, Is this man a mur- 
derer ? Certain facts being given, you determine by a process of 
reasoning that he killed the man. But did he do it with malice ? 
You determine that also by a process of reasoning. You then say 
that — 

Murder is killing with malice prepense, 
This man killed with malice prepense, 
Therefore this man is a murderer. 
The proof of the murder, and the force of the reasoning, does 
not turn on any manipulation of terms, or class relations, but on the 
facts which give us the right to use our terms, and which enable us 
to bring the individual into those class relations. It is not proved 
by the syllogism that the man committed the murder, but the syllo- 
gism is the form which the proof takes in our minds when we state 
it fully and in order. 



REASON. 



187 



Reasoning Processes. — In our search after truth we 
infer generals from representative particulars — we in- 
duct. From generals, we infer particulars — we deduce. 
Finally, we test correctness by a critical analysis and 
synthesis — we verify 

1. Inductive Reasoning is inferring generals from 
particulars. Through the medium of particulais we 
discern generals : 

(1.) Illustrations. Take the human hand. Let the 
fingers represent particulars and the arm the general. 
Also, place on the board converging lines. 



a, b, c, etc., material sub- 
stances, gravitate ; 

But a, b, c, etc., material 
substances, represent 
the concept matter ; 

.*. All material substances 
gravitate. 




a, b, c, etc., monkeys, are 
quadrupeds ; 

But a, b, c, etc., represent 
the concept monkeys ; 

.". All monkeys are quad- 
rupeds. 



(2.) Nature is uniform. Forces not only persist, but 
also act uniformly. The reign of law is the sub-basis of all 
science. Induction is safe. You may illustrate as above : 

In a, b, e, etc., cases, H a O form water ; 
But a, b, e, etc., cases represent all possible cases ; 
.'. In all cases the union of one volume of oxygen and two vol- 
umes of hydrogen will form water. 
-14 



188 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



(3.) Mathematical induction. One case is sufficient to 
justify the inference. Is this peculiar to mathematics ? 

The sura of the three angles of this triangle is equal to two 
right angles ; 

But this is a typical triangle ; 

.•. The sum of the three angles of any triangle is equal to two 
right angles. 

(Give two examples, and show that a single typical case justifies 
a general conclusion.) 

2. Deductive reasoning is inferring particulars from 
generals. Through the medium of general truths we 
discern particular truths : 

(1.) Illustrations. Again study the human hand. 
Now you begin with the arm as representing the gen- 
eral truth, and you let each fin- 
ger represent a particular truth. 
^ATTfTjTx^ \ Also, place on board diverging 
lines as follows : 




All material substances grav- 
itate ; 

Diamond is a material sub- 
stance ; 
.•. Diamond gravitates. 




(2.) Major premise. The conclusions of our induc- 
tions become the major premises for our deductions. 



REASON. 189 

(3.) Deduction in science. By induction we dis- 
cover laws, and by deduction we apply laws. Thus sci- 
ence is builded. 

3. Verification is resolving arguments into their 
elements, and reuniting these elements into arguments. 
Syllogisms are reduced to judgments, judgments to con- 
cepts, and concepts to percepts. This is termed the 

(1.) Analytic test. By analysis, we resolve arguments into ele- 
ments. Thus we examine the foundations of reasoning and test the 
validity of our reasoning. Take this syllogism : 

Men are rational, 

Negroes are men, 

.•. Negroes are rational. 

We reduce the argument to judgments in order to examine each 
judgment separately. We reduce the major premise to the con- 
cepts men and rational. We reduce the concepts men and rational 
to elementary percepts to test their agreement. In the same way 
we reduce the minor premise and the conclusion. 

(2.) Synthetic test. By synthesis, we combine elements into ar- 
guments. We think individual notions into the concepts men and 
rational. We discern the agreement of men and rational, and form 
the judgment men are rational. 

In the same way we synthesize the minor premise and conclu- 
sion. Does the conclusion follow from the premises % This is the 
final question. 

Disbelief, Doubt, Certainty. — Self, as reason, when a 
conclusion is disproved by facts, rejects it as false. We 
disbelieve that the earth is the center of the solar sys- 
tem. When the evidence is insufficient or conflicting, 
we doubt ; but when the evidence is conclusive, we ac- 
cept the conclusion as certain. Self, as reason, discerns 
conclusions and accepts them as true. We believe the 
earth is spherical, because the proofs satisfy reason. We 
believe Arnold was a traitor, because the testimony is 



190 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

conclusive. Assenting to conclusions as true is intel- 
lectual belief. 

1. Disbelief. When a conclusion is not sustained by 
proofs, we disbelieve it. We disbelieve the story of Tell 
and the apple, because the proofs are wanting. Belief 
comes from evidence. " Faith comes by hearing." In 
the absence of evidence, belief is impossible. When the 
facts clearly disprove a conclusion, we disbelieve it and 
reject it as false. Unbelief is the absence of belief. 

2. Doubt. When the proofs are insufficient, we 
doubt. Are the planets inhabited % We doubt, because 
the proofs do not satisfy us. 

3. Degrees of belief. Belief varies as the proofs 
vary. We accept the nebular hypothesis as possible. 
We accept evolution in some form as probable. We 
accept the atomic theory as highly probable. Business 
men base their operations largely on estimated j)roba- 
bilities. 

4. Certainty. Accumulative proof as well as de- 
monstrative proof gives certainty. We know that the 
three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, 
for the mathematical proofs are demonstrative. We 
know with equal certainty that Washington was Presi- 
dent, for the cumulative testimony renders doubt im- 
popsible. When proof is sufficient to establish the con- 
clusion as absolutely certain, we accept it without the 
shadow of a doubt ; we believe it absolutely. 

Reason and Faith. — " To believe a thing is to regard it as true. 
Truth is harmony with universal intelligence." " Faith is the highest 
product of reason." Faith is not a faculty, but a complete act of 
faith involves all the faculties. The elements of practical faith are 
intellectual assent, confidence, trust. 

1. Intellectual assent. The soul discerns the conclusion, "All 



REASON. 191 

life comes from antecedent life." We assent to this proposition, 
accept it as true, believe it. Intellectual assent to truth discerned 
is the fundamental element in belief or faith. So far, belief is purely 
intellectual. This is what is meant by the cold logic of mathe- 
matics. But faith means much more than intellectual assent. It 
means also confidence and trust as well. It involves the emotions 
and the will as well as the intellect. Faith works by love, purifies 
the heart, and leads on to good lives. But the basis is truth dis- 
cerned. Blind credulity is not faith. Only rational beings believe. 

Proofs. 
1. Antecedents of Assent. •{ Reasons. 



Belief or Faith. : 



Evidences. 



2. Intellectual Assent. 

{1. Confidence — 
Emotion. 
2. Trust— Will. 

2. Confidence. We confide in the evidence as well as in our 
abilities to discern truth. We have not the means to make ex- 
haustive experiments for ourselves, but we have confidence in Tyn- 
dall and other great scientists. We believe them to be honest and 
capable. We not only assent to the conclusion, " All life comes from 
antecedent life," but we accept it with confidence. We discern this 
stupendous truth and confide in it. We believe with the emotions 
as well as with the intellect. 

3. Trust. We trust where we believe. The engineer believes 
the new bridge to be safe, and trusts his train upon it. We trust in 
Tyndall and other great scientists, and make the conclusion, " All life 
comes from antecedent life," the corner-stone of science. We assent 
we confide, we trust. Faith begins in intellectual assent, works by 
love, and culminates in action. Faith makes society possible, and 
life worth living. Faith is the condition of progress and achieve- 
ment. Life is too short for one person to experience much, but by 
faith each one builds on the experience of others. By faith the 
vicarious experience of the race is appropriated by the individual. 
The scientist walks by sight in one case, but by faith in a thousand 
cases. 

Growth of Reason.— -Tlie power of inference is the 
latest of all the intellectual faculties to reach full ac- 
tivity. When children not more than three years old 



192 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

startle their parents with troublesome whys, it is only 
budding reason, crude and concrete. The boy begins to 
solve problems and to debate, thus indicating a steady 
growth of this faculty. Reason does not often reach its 
highest activity before the twentieth year. Its growth 
throughout active life is everywhere evident. " Old 
men for counsel " attests the popular belief in this fact. 

Education of Reason.* — " The culture of reason has been very 
generally neglected in our methods of teaching. The object of teach- 
ers seems to have been to fill the memory with the facts and truths 
of a subject, rather than to develop the power by which these 
truths were obtained. They have failed to develop the power of 
original thought and investigation. Even in teaching thought- 
studies, memory has been brought into activity more than thought. 
The mind has too often been regarded as a capacity to be filled, 
rather than an activity to be developed. Teachers have aimed to 
put knowledge into the mind, as we pour water into a vessel, or 
shovel coal into a coal-bin ; while the power that originates knowl- 
edge, that works up ideas and thoughts into laws and principles, has 
been neglected. 

" This culture should be carefully adapted to the age and de- 
velopment of the pupils. Children should be taught to compare 
objects, to inquire for causes, and to see the relation of things to 
one another. Inductive reasoning should precede deductive ; causes 
should be presented before laws and principles; and deductive 
thought and the generalizations of science should be introduced as 
the mind becomes prepared for them." f 

Comparative Psychology. — Does the brute reason % Does it dis- 
cern cause relations? Does it infer conclusions from premises'? 
Does any brute give indications of possessing even rudimentary rea- 
son 1 " There seems to be no proof," says Bascom, " that even the 
most sagacious brutes form judgments or induce or deduce conclu- 
sions from premises. The brute is endowed with sense-perception, 
memory, and phantasy. These faculties, we believe, fully account 

* Brooks's "Mental Science and Culture." 

t See " Education of Reason," " Applied Psychology." 



REASON. 193 

for all brute phenomena. The animal has to do directly with things 
and their images. The animal can not form ideas, and hence can 
not be taught language. Man alone gains ideas, and deals with ab- 
stractions, generalizations, concepts, judgments, reasons." No pro- 
cess of development can ever make a reasoning animal out of a brute. 
The difference is in kind. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — You may now climb the Psychological Tree (p. 56) 
and ascend the Psychological Pyramid (p. 152) till you reach reason. 
Define each faculty and its product, and give its office. In all cases 
give examples. What relations do you discern when you conceive ? 
when you judge? when you reason? Point out the distinction be- 
tween perceive and discern. Define faculty; perceptive faculties; 
representative faculties ; thought faculties. 

What is meant by reason? What is reason sometimes called? 
Why ? Analyze an act of reason. What do you discover ? 

What is the office of a faculty ? of reason ? How do we find 
out particular truths ? General truths ? How do we verify conclu- 
sions ? Illustrate. 

Give the first characteristic of reason ; the second ; the third. 
What do you mean by belief ? Show the distinctions between reason 
and conception ; reason and judgment. 

State the author's definition of reason ; yours ; Wundt's. De- 
fine reasoning and a reason. 

What may we call the products of reason ? What is a syllo- 
gism ? an enthymeme ? Give the terms of a syllogism. Give the 
propositions. Illustrate. 

Give the two ways in which we reason. Define and illustrate 
deductive reasoning ; inductive reasoning. Explain verification. 
Give three examples of each process. What do you mean by verifi- 
cation by analysis ? by synthesis ? What is belief ? Name the three 
elements of belief. Illustrate. 

How are reason and belief related ? What is testimony ? Give 
distinctions between unbelief, doubt, degrees of belief and certainty. 
Show that belief is an intellectual product. 

Tell about the growth of reason. When does it reach full ac- 
tivity? Give some of the mistakes of the old education. What 
branches seem to be best for the culture of reason % 



194 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Does the brute reason I Give Bascom's views. What faculties 
has the brute % Do they account for all mental phenomena of brute- 
life? 

Letter. — You may now tell your friend about the crowning in- 
tellectual power. Ask him to take plenty of time here. Every- 
thing must stand out in sunlight clearness. 

Theories. — The antiquated theories of idealism, realism, and 
nominalism, which engaged thinkers of past centuries, are omitted. 
They might confuse and could not benefit the young psychologist. 

Analysis of Chapter XVI. 

I. Acts of Reason analyzed. 

Deduction. Induction. 

II. Office of Reason. 

Discerning particulars. Verifying conclusions. 

Discerning generals. 

III. Characteristics of Reason. 

Power to infer. Power to believe. 

Power to systematize. 

IV. Reason defined. 

Author's definition. Various definitions. 

Original definition. 

V. Terms of a Syllogism. 

Major. Middle. Minor. 

VI. Propositions of a Syllogism. 

Major premise. Conclusion. 

Minor premise. 

VII. Reasoning Processes'. 

Induction. Deduction. Verification. 

VIII. Reason and Belief. 

Belief defined. Degrees of belief. 

Disbelief. Certainty. 

Doubt. Blunders. 

IX. Growth and Education of Reason. 

X. Comparative Psychology. 



THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL VIEW. 



195 



CHAPTER XYII. 

THOUGHT-KNOWING GENERAL VIEW. 

Reason crowns Cognition. — At the base of the psy- 
chological pyramid you find perceptive knowing. All 
cognition is founded on the rock of immediate knowl- 
edge. Representative knowing builds on perceptive 
knowing. Without representation there could be no 
comparison, and thought would be impossible. Crown- 
ing the pyramid of the intellectual faculties and their 
products, you find reason. Here, presented in one 
view, and, as far as possible, in the order of their de- 
pendence, are the nine cognitive powers : 

INTELLECT. 



o 



fir 
o 

«? 

^" 
-J 



fir 



o 



JUDGMENT. 



CONCEPTION. 



IMAGINATION. 



a. 
(<y 
O 



Z 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 



CONSCIOUSNESS. 



SENSE-PERCEPTION. 



PRODUCT3. 



JUDGMENTS. 



CONCEPTS. 



PHANTASMS. 



A 

•z- 



% 

°A 

C 



MEMORIES. 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTS. 



CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTS. 



SENSE-PERCEPTS. 



o 
c 



196 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

The Nine Intellectual Faculties. — The soul is the conscious self 
that knows, feels, and wills. The capabilities of the soul to exert 
acts of knowing different in kind are termed the intellectual facul- 
ties. A faculty is not an organ or an entity ; nor is a faculty a 
myth. This bar of magnetic iron has not organs, but bound up in 
it are energies called magnetism, gravity, cohesion. The soul is an 
entity endowed with capabilities to know, to feel, and to will. A 
faculty is a soul-energy to do acts distinguishable in kind from other 
acts. You reproduce and recognize a past experience ; the act is 
distinguishable in kind from all other kinds of mental acts ; mem- 
ory is a faculty; the soul is endowed with a reproductive energy. 

1. The intellectual faculties are the powers of the soul to perform 
different kinds of acts of knowing. Discrimination and assimilation 
are processes involved in some degree in all knowing ; but these are 
not faculties. Like the physical forces, faculties are distinct ener- 
gies. A compound element is not a greater absurdity than a com- 
pound faculty. We have as many intellectual powers as we have 
distinct knowing energies, and no more. 

2. Groups of intellectual faculties. The number three is not 
a sacred number in science, save so far as truth is sacred. Clas- 
sification is scientific when it accords with reality. " How do we 
gain knowledge? How do we keep it? What can we do with it?" 
These questions indicate the natural grouping of the cognitive pow- 
ers. Each group answers to one of these questions. Perception in- 
cludes our three intuitive powers ; representation includes our three 
representative powers ; and elaboration includes our three thought- 
powers. This classification is considered true to reality, and is cer- 
tainly exhaustive. No better classification seems possible for psy- 
chological, educational, or literary purposes. 

3. A uniform nomenclature needed. Much of the confusion in 
the realms of mental science arises from an imperfect and ambigu- 
ous nomenclature. But psychologists and educators are rapidly 
approaching uniformity. The pyramid represents the substantial 
agreement of our latest and best authors. 

Thinking is discerning Relations. — Thought-knowl- 
edge is a knowledge of relations. All knowing is im- 
mediate, representative, or mediate. Because we discern 
the unknown through the known, thought-knowing is 



Names. ^ 



THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL VIEW. 197 

called mediate knowing. Because we think crude per- 
cepts into polished concepts and judgments and reasons, 
we call thought-knowing elaborative knowing. Why is 
thought-knowing called reflective knowing? compara- 
tive knowing % logical knowing % 

Thought-Knowing. 

Mediate-Knowing. 

Comparative-Knowing. 

Elaborative-Knowing. 

Reflective-Knowing. 

Logical-Knowing. 
Our thinking faculties are our soul-energies to discern relations. 
" The faculties of elaboration are variously denominated thus : The 
elaborative or discursive faculties, since they are employed in work- 
ing up into higher forms the materials supplied by acquisition and 
reproduction ; the logical faculties, since they are the faculties em- 
ployed in logical processes ; the comparative faculties, since compari- 
son enters as an essential element into all their processes ; the facul- 
ties of relations, since they deal with relations ; the thought faculties, 
since their acts are styled thought ; the rational faculties, under- 
standing, or intelligence, since they are the faculties which character- 
ize man as rational, and thus distinguish him from inferior beings." * 
C The Thinking Powers. 

The Comparative Powers. 

The Elaborative Faculties. 

The Reflective Faculties. 

The Logical Faculties. 

The Rational Faculties. 
^ The Understanding (indefinite). 
Understanding is used in various senses, and hence is objection- 
able. The other names are expressive and definite, and may be 
used interchangeably. 

Thinking is based on Comparison. — Thinking is dis- 
cerning relations between things. We perceive things 
and discern relations. The things perceived and the 

* Schuyler. 



Names. < 



198 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

relations discerned are objective realities, but concepts, 
judgments, and reasons are products of the mind. 

1. Conception is the power to think things into classes. 
When we compare objects, we discern resemblances and 
form groups of resembling things. We gain general 
notions. 

2. Judgment is the power to think notions into 
propositions. When we compare two notions we dis- 
cern and predicate agreement or disagreement. We 
gain truths. 

3. Reason is the power to think propositions into 
arguments. When we compare propositions, we dis- 
cern conclusions or causal relations. Through inter- 
locked judgments self, as reason, discerns causal rela- 
tions, and thus builds science. We gain conclusions. 

{Conception. 
Judgment. 
Eeason. 
" "We distinguish Three Stages of Thinking. First of all, there is 
the formation of general notions or concepts, This is an act of con- 
cex>tion. Next to this comes the combining of two concepts in the 
form of a statement or proposition, as when we say, ' Material bodies 
have weight.' This is an act of judgment. Lastly, we have the 
operation by which the mind passes from certain judgments to cer- 
tain other judgments, as when from the assertions, ' Material sub- 
stances have weight,' ' Gases are material substances,' we proceed to 
the further assertion, ' Gases have weight.' This is an act of reason. 
These distinctions have been fixed by logicians, and not by psychol- 
ogists. Nevertheless, since they roughly mark off the more simple 
and the more complex modes of thinking and products of thought, 
it is convenient to the psychologist to adopt the distinctions." * 

Self, as Conception, thinks Many Individuals into One 
Class. — The product is called a general notion because 

* Sully. 



THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL VIEW. 199 

it is general to each individual of the class. Why are 
concepts called class-notions and gronp-notions ? An 
idea may be a percept or a concept. .Notion has been 
and is still used as synonymous with idea, but the ten- 
dency now is to use notion in the sense of concept. 



Products of Conception- 



Concepts. 

General Notions. 

Class-Notions. 

Group-Notions. 

Notions. 

" To classify is no secret of science, no process reserved for the 
select few who are initiated into a magic art, but it is as universal 
and necessary as the act of thinking. The classifications of common 
life may be as rational and as useful for the ends of common life as 
are those of science for its special objects." * 

" In our observation of the relation of resemblance, as of every 
other, we proceed through our knowledge, previous or present, of 
objects. From the knowledge we have of things we discern points 
in which they are alike. This enables us to put them into a class, 
to which we may attach a name. That class must include all the 
objects possessing the common attributes fixed on. The faculty to 
discern relations of resemblance is our power to manufacture our 
general notions or concepts.'' f 

Self, as Judgment, discerns Truth-Relations. — The 
product of judging is called a judgment, because it is 
a decision of the mind. As it sets forth the agreement 
or disagreement of notions, it is called a proposition. 
"We discern the agreement or disagreement of ideas — 
we judge. We express the agreement or disagreement 
— we form judgments. A proposition or sentence asserts 
the agreement or disagreement of notions. When the 
assertion corresponds with reality, the judgment is true. 
All judgments are either true or false. 

* Porter. + McCosh. 



200 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

r Judgments. 
Products of Judgment — < Propositions, 
v. Sentences. 

Self, as Eeason, discerns Conclusions through the Me- 
dium of Premises. — Because we think propositions to- 
gether and thus discern conclusions, reasons are called 
syllogisms. Because we establish truth by proofs, rea- 
sons are called arguments and formal proofs. 



Products of Eeason — 



Reasons. 
Arguments. 
Syllogisms. 
Formal Proofs. 



How simple and yet how wonderful are these 
powers ! Man thinks — is rational. Man thinks — gains 
a mastery over the material world. Man thinks — tries 
to solve the problem of the universe. As the digestive 
organs elaborate food into bones, muscles, and nerves, 
so the thinking faculties elaborate our acquisitions into 
concepts, judgments, and reasons. 

Forms of Thinking and Faculties of Thought. — " There are three 
distinct forms of thinking, and consequently three distinct faculties 
of thought, which may be defined as follows : 

" Conception is the faculty of the mind by which we form our 
general abstract notions, or concepts. 

" Judgment is the faculty of the mind by which we know the 
relation between two objects of knowledge. 

" Reason is the faculty of the mind by which we gain new truth 
from truth already known." * 

Original and Manufactured Knowledge. — All our knowledge is 
original or manufactured. Original knowledge has three sources : 
Sense-intuition, conscious-intuition, and noumenal-intuition. Sense- 
intuition is our power to gain original knowledge of the external 
world. Conscious-intuition is our capability to gain original knowl- 

* Dunton. 



THOUGHT-KNOWING— GENERAL VIEW. 201 

edge of the mental world. Noumenal-intuition is our power to gain 
necessary ideas. Through these three sources we gain all the ele- 
ments of knowledge. 

The soul, out of original elements, manufactures higher forms 
of knowledge. We so combine these elements as to produce things 
unheard of before in earth or heaven ; this is the work of self, as 
imagination. We discern class-relations and group resembling 
things into classes, and thus gain general notions ; this is the work 
of self, as conception. We discern truth-relations and think notions 
into propositions; this is the work of selt^&s, judgment. We discern 
cause-relations and reach conclusions through judgments; this is 
the work of self, as reason. 

Self, as memory, reproduces, unchanged, all forms of knowl- 
edge. Memories are merely reproductions of our acquisitions, both 
original and manufactured. 

Last "Words of Physiological Psychology. — " Physiological Psy- 
chology investigates the phenomena of human consciousness from 
the physiological point of view. It finds a marvelous material 
mechanism called the nervous system, and it describes the effects of 
external and internal stimuli upon molecular nerve-substance. It is 
pre-eminently experimental, then speculative, but never demonstra- 
tive. Whatever changes take place in the nerve-substance, in the 
process of starting and communicating nerve-commotion, are invis- 
ible and impalpable. Connections between different cerebral areas 
and their functions are so complex and subtile that it may be doubted 
whether physiological psychology will ever succeed in completely 
disentangling them. We know certain of the physical conditions 
and concomitants of soul action, but mental phenomena can not be 
conceived of as identical with the molecular motion of the nervous 
mass ; nor can the phenomena of consciousness be conceived of as 
the product of the brain. The conclusion is a logical as well as a 
psychological necessity : The subject of all states of consciousness is 
a real unit-being called mind, which is of non-material nature, and 
acts and develops according to laws of its own, but is specially cor- 
related with certain material molecules and masses, forming the sub- 
stance of the brain. 

Physical Basis of Thought. — " A scientific physiology of the cere- 
bral hemispheres does not exist, nor is it at the present a matter for 
even hopeful anticipation. In studying the higher mental phenom- 
ena, physiological psychology is obliged almost wholly to adopt the 



202 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

methods of the old psychology and accept the facts of consciousness. 
We decline to discuss the physical basis of the logical faculties, as 
there is absolutely no scientific ground on which to base such a dis- 
cussion. The inability of psychological science to conceive of any 
physical process which can be correlated with the acts of conceiv- 
ing, judging, and reasoning, is complete. We are forced to make 
the same humiliating admission as to memory and imagination and 
choice and intuition and conscience." * 

Reason and Unity. — Infinite Reason planned the universe. 
Everything, from the atom to a system of worlds, is related by de- 
pendencies. Cause and effect, means and ends, antecedents and con- 
sequents, unite all into one unity. Endowed with Reason, we can 
think the thoughts of God after him. 

Reason, through interlocked Judgments, discerns cause rela- 
tions. In its work, Reason lays under contribution all our other 
capabilities. All are its servants, subject to its supervision. We 
fashion our percepts — Reason is there ; we remember and imagine — 
Reason is there ; Ave form judgments — Reason is there ; we feel emo- 
tions of truth and beauty and duty — Reason is there ; we choose and 
act — behold, Reason is there. 

Not to educate Reason is to leave man to grope in a sea of hope- 
less mystery. To the unthinking, the universe is a maze without 
a plan, and life is not worth living. As reason grows, all things be- 
gin to assume proportion and harmony. Substances, forces, laws, 
conditions, dependencies ; cause, space, duration ; rational beings, 
brutes, plants, worlds ; all things fall into rhythm and make for us 
the music of the spheres. 

* Ladd, "Physiological Psychology." 



PART V. 
THE FEELINGS. 



CHAPTER XVIII.— The Instincts. 

XIX. — The Physical Peelings. — The Appetites. 
XX. — The Emotions. — Egoistic Emotions. 
XXI. — The Emotions. — Altruistic Emotions. 
XXII. — The Emotions. — Truth Emotions. 
XXIII. — The Emotions. — ./Esthetic Emotions. 
XXIV. — The Emotions. — Ethical Emotions. 
XXV. — The Emotions. — General View. 



15 



PSYCHOLOGICAL PYRAMID. 



d THE WILL 
POWERS. 



THE 



THE COSMIC EMOTIONS. 
THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 
MS- I THE EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 



THE 
PHYSICAL 
FEELINGS. 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

THE GENERAL SENSES. 

THE APPETITES. 



X, 

»-, 

a. 

O, 



-J 

QQ 
•< 
Q. 
-=* 
O 

LU 

X £ 



THE 
INSTINCTS. 



HUMAN INSTINCTS. 

COMMON INSTINCTS. 

STRICTLY BRUTE INSTINCTS. 



THE 
THINKING 
POWERS. 



REASON. 

JUDGMENT. 

CONCEPTION. 



REASONS. 

(JUDGMENTS.! 

CONCEPTS.' 



THE 

jREPRESENT-j 

ATIVE 

POWERS. 



IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 



IDEALS. 



O 



| PHANTASMS.) c 
O 
MEMORIES. 



THE 

|PERCEPTIVE| 

POWERS. 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 



NOUMENAL- 
PERCEPTS. I 

I CONSCIOUS-! 
PERCEPTS.] 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS. 



FIFTH PAHT. 

THE FEELINGS. 



Feelings are agitations and impulses of the soul. 
I suffer hunger, I long for wisdom, I sympathize with 
my bereaved friend, I feel impulses to do what I be- 
lieve to be right. These agitations and impulses are 
called feelings, or sensibilities, or susceptibilities. 

{The Feelings. 
The Sensibilities. 
The Susceptibilities. 

A sensibility is a capability for a distinct hind of 
feeling. The power of thirst is a feeling or sensibility. 
The agitation and impulse of thirstiness is the activity 
of the capability to feel thirst. We are endowed with 
powers to feel, and we exert these powers, or we feel. 
A feeling implies a power to feel. We have as many 
sensibilities as we have distinct kinds of feeling. A 
feeling is usually agreeable or disagreeable ; this gen- 
eral characteristic of the feelings will enable you to dis- 
tinguish feeling from knowing and willing. 

We enjoy and suffer. We enjoy sweet music, con- 
genial society, success ; but we suffer physical pain, 
want, disappointment. We discern truth, feel pleasure, 
and choose safety. We know, feel, and will. 



206 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

{The Instincts. 
The Physical Feelings. 
The Emotions. 

Feeling is mental agitation and impulse. Some 
feelings are blind but guiding impulses — these we call 
instincts. Some feelings are occasioned by organic bod- 
ily excitations — these we name physical feelings. Some 
feelings are occasioned by ideas — these we term emo- 
tions. This easy classification of the feelings is thought 
to be exhaustive as well as convenient. 



CIIAPTEE XVIII. 

THE ESTSTINCTS. 

By these we mean guiding impulses. All feelings 
are blind ; many feelings move to action ; but instincts 
are the only feelings which guide. The guiding im- 
pulses or instincts are clearly a distinct class of feelings. 
Where intelligence can not act, instinct moves the ani- 
mal to blindly conform to law. Creative Wisdom has 
implanted in the animal marvelous energies to adapt 
means to ends without knowing why. Instinct is adap- 
tative or regulative impulse ; it is a blind tendency to 
wise ends. {The discussion of Instinct [see Chapter 
II, p. 15] seems to be as full as is desirable in an ele- 
mentary work. A careful examination of the chapter 
on Instinct will aid the student to master the following 
chapters.) 



THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS— TnE APPETITES. 207 

CHAPTER XIX. 

THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS THE APPETITES. 

By the physical feelings we mean our capabilities 
to feel organic affections of the body. The feelings 
occasioned by external excitants affecting the sensorium 
are called special sensations ; the feelings occasioned by 
the affections of the organs and tissues of the body are 
called general sensations ; but the feelings occasioned 
by cravings for bodily needs are termed appetites. Our 
capabilities to feel in these ways are termed 

( The Special Sensations. 
The Physical Feelings, -s The General Sensations. 
v The Appetites. 

All feeling is mental, but mental agitations and im- 
pulses originating in organic affections of the body may 
appropriately be termed physical feelings. 

Sensation. By this is meant the conscious affection of the senso- 
rium. Agitations occasioned by affections of the special sensor ap- 
paratuses, as in seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, are termed 
special sensations. Agitations occasioned by affections of the gen- 
eral sensor apparatuses are called general sensations ; as, sensations 
of hunger, thirst, weariness. {See Chapters IV, V, and VI. Sen- 
sation is there examined at length. You are recommended to review 
these chapters before advancing.) 

Mechanism of Sensation. — The nervous mechanism 
includes the end organs, the sensor-nerves, and the cen- 
tral organs. It is the office of the end organs to trans- 
mute the physical molecular processes into physiological 
processes. The molecular-commotion moves through the 



208 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

nerves to the central organs. The molecules of the cen- 
tral organs are capable of assuming to each other incon- 
ceivably varied relations in transmuting and redistrib- 
uting nerve-commotion. Such is the vital mechanism 
of sensation. The self-conscious soul feels the excita- 
tions of this mechanism, and these feelings are called 
sensations. Self as sense-perception out of his sensa- 
tions forms ideas called sense-percepts. "But the con- 
nections between the different cerebral areas and their 
functions are so complex and subtile that physiological 
science will need a long time to disentangle them ; it 
may be doubted whether it will ever succeed in doing 
this completely." 

THE APPETITES. 

By these we mean the cravings for bodily wants. 
Our acts of cognition are more or less definite, and we 
are able to examine them with considerable certainty. 
We shall find it much more difficult to scrutinize our 
feelings ; but patient, penetrating effort will enable us 
to conquer this new world. 

Analysis of Acts of Appetite. — You have not taken 
food for twelve hours. The dead tissues have been re- 
moved during sleep. The aching void within is the 
cry of hunger, or the appetite for food. The soul feels 
the bodily cry of hunger, and also feels the desire to 
satisfy the appetite. These feelings occasion the im- 
pulse to seek and take food. A limited quantity of 
food temporarily satisfies hunger, but when the system 
requires more nutriment, the craving begins again. 
You may analyze thirst, and tell what you discover. 
Does the soul feel the cry of thirst ? 



THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS— THE APPETITES. 209 

Office of the Appetites. — Self, as appetite, feels the 
cries of the body for bodily wants ; these cries give rise 
to desires for means to satisfy the wants. "When our 
bodies need rest, we desire sleep to satisfy the cry of 
sleepiness. Craving for objects to gratify the organic 
needs of the body is the office of appetite. Each appe- 
tite has its special office. What is the office of hunger 1 
of thirst ? of restiveness ? of respiration % 

Characteristics of aa Appetite. — How do you distin- 
guish an appetite from other feelings ? From your anal- 
ysis you discover the three peculiarities of an appetite : 

1. An appetite is a craving occasioned oy an or- 
ganic need of the body. Give the physiological expla- 
nation, and show that this is true of hunger, thirst, 
sleepiness. 

2. An appetite is intermittent. When satisfied, 
the craving ceases for a time, but returns. Explain 
physiologically, and show that respiration, sleepiness, 
hunger, are intermittent. 

3. An appetite has physical limits. The amount 
that can be taken of food, or of drink, or of air, or of 
sleep, or of exercise, is limited. Explain physiologically. 
All feelings having these characteristics may be safely 
classed as appetites. 

The Appetites.— The following seem to be the only 
feelings that can be classed as appetites. Each of these 
feelings has the three characteristics of an appetite : 

r Hunger, the appetite for food. 
Thirst, the appetite for drink. 
. _ J Sleepiness, the appetite for sleep. 
Appeti es, ^ Restiveness, the appetite for exercise or rest. 
Sexuality, the appetite for sex. 
'- Respiration, the appetite for air. 



210 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Appetite Defined. — It is difficult to define a feeling, 
though we are just as conscious of our feelings as of our 
knowings. We are not in doubt about what the feeling 
is, but we find it hard to tell. 

1. The appetites are cravings for the gratification 
of bodily wants. Because the organic cries of the body 
give rise to mental cravings, we call these feelings 
physical feelings. These cravings have a physical 
origin and a physical object. 

2. Original definition. You may write a definition 
in your own language. You must not confound de- 
sires occasioned by these cravings nor sensations accom- 
panying the gratification of the appetite with the crav- 
ing of an appetite. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Gregory: Appetites are cravings 
having for their object the well-being of the body. 2. Peabody : 
Appetites are cravings of the body designed to secure the continued 
life of the individual and the race. 3. McCosh : Appetites are men- 
tal cravings for objects to gratify bodily needs. 4. Stewart : Ap- 
petites are cravings which take their rise from the body, and are de- 
signed for the preservation of the individual and the continuation of 
the species. 

Appetency is craving for specific gratification, and is the basis 
of feeling. You crave pears — you say you are very fond of pears. 
This fondness or appetency gives rise to the craving. So with all 
appetites. 

Natural and Modified Appetites. — Each appetite is an 
endowment, but an appetite may be modified by ex- 
perience. 

1. Natural appetites are iinperverted appetites. 
The appetites for suitable food and drink, for pure air, 
for necessary sleep, are natural appetites. 

2. Modified appetites are called artificial appetites* 



THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS— THE APPETITES. 211 

or perverted appetites, or unnatural appetites. The ap- 
petite for opium is an acquired appetite — i. e., the 
natural appetite for food is so modified by experience 
as to create a craving for opium. The alcoholic and 
tobacco appetites are perverted appetites. 

Unnatural appetites are natural appetites perverted. They are 
due to diseased conditions of the organism. Their longings become 
agonies. They enslave and tend to destroy their victims. 

Guides of the Appetites, — Reflex action, instinct, and 
intelligence, each play a part in guiding to the lawful 
gratifications of the appetites. 

1. Reflex action is involved in the organic cries of 
want and in the satisfied feeling which follows the grati- 
fication of the appetite. As to the gratification of the 
appetites, the action of our bodies is very machine-like. 
This is well ; for, if left to reason, we should starve, or 
destroy our lives by overeating. 

2. Instinct covers much of the ground, guiding each 
brute to the proper gratification of its appetites. How ? 
We do not know. This knowledge is too high for us. 

3. Intelligence guides rational beings. Man finds 
out the law and obeys it. In so far as animals are in- 
telligent, intelligence as well as instinct guides them in 
satisfying their appetites. 

Lawful Gratification of the Appetites. — Like all other 
energies, the appetites have their laws. A rational be- 
ing learns and obeys these laws, but the brute complies 
instinctively. 

1. Lawful gratification gives pleasure. In this the 
appetites are like all other endowments. The Father, 
everywhere, has made happiness to result from law 
obeyed. 



212 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. Lawful gratification is God- approved, and works 
good. The divine approval is manifested in connecting 
pleasure with the lawful gratification of appetite. 
The body is the organism in connection with which the 
mind works. That this organism may be kept in the 
best possible condition, it is necessary that the appetites 
be lawfully gratified. Asceticism and epicureanism are 
fundamental errors. 

Unlawful Gratification of the Appetites. — All viola- 
tions of law bring misery. Violations of physical laws 
produce physical misery. 

1. Unlawful gratification gives pain. Sooner or 
later violations of the laws of appetite bring suffering. 
The trembling debauchee and the wretched dyspeptic 
are extreme cases. 

2. Unlawful gratification is disapproved. The 
wretchedness following the unlawful gratification of the 
appetites marks the divine disapproval. 

3. Unlawful gratification works evil. The alco- 
holic appetite causes much of the crime, insanity, and 
pauperism that curse society. All unlawful gratification 
of the appetites tends to brutalize man and destroy 
society. 

Temperance. — This means self-control. While edu- 
cating children, parents and teachers train them to the 
habit of controlling their appetites. Thus the appetites 
are made faithful servants. This is fundamental in 
education. Intemperance is the want of self-control. 
The child, whether five or fifty years of age, gives 
loose rein to the appetites, and sinks the man in the 
animal. 



THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS— TOE APPETITES. 213 



SUa GESTIVE STUD Y-HINTS. 

Review. — Begin with sense-perception, ascend the Psychological 
Pyramid (p. 204) and the Psychological Tree (p. 56) to the physical 
feelings. Define and give office, characteristics, and products of 
each of the intellectual faculties. Give two distinctions between 
knowing and feeling. Why are the feelings called sensibilities? 
susceptibilities? What is feeling? Name the three classes into 
which all the feelings are divided. Tell what you know about in- 
stinct. 

What is meant by the physical feelings ? How do instincts and 
physical feelings differ ? Name the three classes of physical feelings. 
Define each. Why are they called physical feelings ? 

Draw the optic apparatus and describe optic sensation and optic 
perception. Treat in the same way each of the special senses. Name 
the fifteen general senses. 

What do you mean by the appetites ? Analyze an act of thirst. 
What do you observe ? 

What is the office of the appetites? Illustrate by sleepiness. 
Give the three characteristics of an appetite. Illustrate by hunger. 

Name the appetites and test by the three characteristics of an 
appetite. Is respiration an appetite ? 

Give the author's definition of the appetites. Give your defini- 
tion. Give the definition of Gregory ; of Stewart. Define appe- 
tency. Illustrate. Define inappetency. Illustrate. What do you 
mean by appetible ? By inappetible ? Illustrate each. 

What do you mean by natural appetites ? By modified or arti- 
ficial appetites? Illustrate. Is the craving for opium a natural 
appetite ? For tobacco ? For alcohol ? 

What are the three guides in the gratification of an appetite ? 
What does reflex action do ? Instinct ? Intelligence? 

What do you mean by lawful gratification of appetites ? By 
unlawful gratification? What follows? How are the divine ap- 
proval and disapproval manifested ? 

Letter. — Write your friend a thoughtful letter, explaining the 
nature of the appetites. Show the relation between self-control and 
happiness. 



214 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Analysis of Chapter XIX. 



I. The Physical Feelings. 

1. The Special Sensations. 
3. The Appetites. 

II. Appetite Analyzed. 

1. Hunger. 



2. The General Sensations. 



2. Thirst. 



III. Office of the Appetites. 

1. To supply bodily wants. 

IV. Characteristics of Appetites. 

1. Craving originating in 
bodily wants. 

V. The Appetites. 

1. Hunger. 
3. Sleepiness. 
5. Sexuality. 

VI. Appetites Defined. 

1. Author's definition. 
3. Various definitions. 

VII. Kinds of Appetites. 

1. Original, or natural appetites. 

2. Artificial, or modified appetites. 

VIII. Guides to the Appetites. 

1. Reflex action. 2. Instinct. 

3. Intelligence. 



2. To perpetuate the race. 

2. Intermittent. 

3. Physical limits. 

2. Thirst. 

4. Restiveness. 
6. Respiration. 

2. Original definition. 



IX. 



Gratification of the Appetites. 

1. Lawful. * 



Unlawful. 



Temperance, or Self-control. 

1. Appetites made servants. 

2. Habits of self-control. 

3. Intemperance— the animal dominates the man. 



THE EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 215 

CHAPTER XX. 

THE EMOTIONS — EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 

We mean by the emotions our capabilities to feel in 
view of ideas. Emotions are strung on ideas as pearls 
on threads of gold. Good news awakens joy, but bad 
news occasions sorrow. All our higher feelings arise in 
view of ideas, and are termed emotions. 



8. THE EMOTIONS. 



2. THE PHYSICAL FEELINGS. 



1. THE INSTINCTS. 



Sometimes we speak of emotions as intellectual 
feelings, because they are occasioned by knowing. 
Often we call the emotions our heart-powers, because 
we have learned to use the term heart so as to include 
all our higher feelings. 



J 



The Emotions. 

The Intellectual Feeling. 



\ The Heart Powers. 
V The Higher Feelings. 

An emotion is used to designate both a power to 
feel and an act of feeling. A capability for an emo- 
tion distinct in kind is called an emotional power ; and 
the feeling is the exertion of the power. I love my 
mother ; the capability to love is an emotional power, 
but loving is exerting this power. The term emotion 
applies equally to the capability and the exercise of the 



216 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

capability ; as, I am endowed with the capability to feel 

the emotion of joy and I rejoice, or feel the emotion 

of joy. 

C Egoistic or Self-Emotions. 
] Altruistic Emotions or Sympathies. 
Classe3 of Emotions. — < / Truth Emotions. 

Cosmic Emotions, -j Beauty Emotions. 
( Duty Emotions. 

Some emotions refer to self, and are called egoistic 
emotions ; some refer to others, and are called altru- 
istic emotions ; some are unlimited, but arise in view of 
the true, the beautiful, and the good, and are called cos- 
mic emotions. Emotions limited to self are self-emo- 
tions ; emotions limited to others are altruistic emotions ; 
but unlimited emotions are cosmic emotions. 

THE EGOISTIC EMOTIONS OK THE SELF- EMOTIONS. 

These are the feelings which minister to self. You 
desire pleasure, long for wealth, and hope for fame ; 
these feelings look to self, and we apply to them the 
following 

{Egoistic Emotions. 
Self-Emotions. 
Personal Emotions. 

As egoistic emotions minister to self, they are 
termed self-emotions. Since they terminate in one's 
own person, they are called personal emotions. 

Acts of Egoistic Emotion Analyzed. — Your teacher 
pronounces your essay excellent ; you feel satisfaction, 
joy, pride. You fail to solve the problem ; you are 
dissatisfied, chagrined, humiliated. You feel exultant 
in view of self succeeding ; you feel mortified in view 



THE EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 217 

of self failing. As these are self-emotions, we call 
them egoistic emotions. Ideas pertaining to self occa- 
sion personal emotions. 

From a careful examination of many of your self- 
emotions, you can infer the 

Office of the Egoistic Emotions. — These feelings look 
to the well-being of self. The instinct of self-preserva- 
tion is deeply implanted in all animals. We shrink 
from danger and welcome good. The office of the 
egoistic emotions is self-preservation and self-exaltation. 
You have also discovered from your analysis the 

Characteristics of Egoistic Emotions. — It is not diffi- 
cult to distinguish personal emotions from other men- 
tal acts. 

1. Egoistic emotions are feelings occasioned oy ideas 
referring to self. Some one calls you a coward ; 
you feel indignant. Some friend leaves you a fortune ; 
you rejoice. All emotions that terminate in self are 
self-emotions. 

2. Egoistic emotions looh to self-betterment. The 
personal emotions are not always selfish, but they all 
look to self ; hence they are called egoistic. All emo- 
tions which look to self-betterment are self-emotions. 
These emotions may sink into selfishness and egotism. 

Egoistic Emotions Defined. — Personal emotions, di- 
rectly and indirectly, minister to self. They are the 
soul-energies which move us to act for our own preser- 
vation and exaltation. 

1. Self -emotions are tfce feelings which minister to 
self 

2. Original. Make a definition of your own. Il- 
lustrate. 



218 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



3. Various Definitions. — Brooks: The egoistic emotions are 
those that center in self. Sully : The egoistic emotions are such as 
imply personal reference. McCosh : Egoistic emotions are the feel- 
ings called forth in view of good and evil as bearing on self. 

Classes of Self-Emotions. — By examining several con- 
crete cases, yon will be able to classify egoistic emotions 
chronologically. Take emulation. Yon wish to excel 
in a spelling-match. Before the contest, yon exult in 
anticipated triumph ; the exultation is a prospective 
emotion. During the contest your soul throbs with in- 
terest and courage ; these feelings are immediate emo- 
tions. After the contest, you feel chagrin and disappoint- 
ment in view of your failure ; chagrin is a retrospective 
emotion. 

You prepared an essay and read it before your class. What 
prospective emotions did you feel % What immediate emotions did 
you feel while writing and reading the essay % What emotions do 
you now feel when you remember the cheers and the criticisms % 

' Hope or Pear ; Expectation or Despair ; Assurance 
. or Dread. 

_ . -< Courage or Cowardice ; Modesty or Impudence. 

Egoistic Desires — Desire for Knowledge, Desire 
^ for Esteem. Etc., etc. 

C Joy or Sorrow ; Gladness or Depression ; Rapture 
or Melancholy. 
Immediate I Content or Discontent ; Good Humor or Bad ; 
Emotions. — ] Sweet Disposition or Sour. 

Pride or Humility ; Patience or Impatience ; Van- 
ity or Meekness. Etc., etc. 

Satisfaction or Regret ; Complacency or Displa- 

cency. 
Self-Gratulation or Reproach ; Self- Approbation 

or' Disapprobation. 
Emotions of Pleasant Memories or Unpleasant. 

Etc., etc. 



Retrospective 
Emotions. — 



THE EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 210 

Prospective Self-Emotions. — The egoistic emotions 
occasioned by contemplating the future with reference 
to self are called prospective emotions. Carefully study 
your list of prospective emotions, and state cases in- 
volving each. The egoistic desires are longings for self- 
betterment. 







T. DESIRE FOR PERFECTION. 








6. DESIRE FOR BEAUTY. 










5. DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE. 




- 






4. DESIRE FOR ESTEEM. 










3. DESIRE FOR POWER. 








2. DESIRE FOR PROPERTY. 




1. DESIRE FOR LIFE. 



Our longings for self-betterment, as given above, 
are termed the seven primitive egoistic desires. As a 
study of the egoistic desires, you may reconstruct the 
pyramid, placing at the base the desire you think deep- 
est, and the others in the order of their hold on human 
nature. 

Happiness is not a desire, but a result of lawfully gratified de- 
sires. Not happiness, but food, is the desire of a hungry man. Not 
happiness, but knowledge, is the desire of the earnest student. We 
are so constituted that the lawful gratification of our desires gives 
us pleasure. President Porter says : 

"There is in man no separate desire of happiness. No man 
ever desired happiness in the general or the abstract. No one can 
ever catch himself or his neighbor thinking of happiness in the ab- 
stract, or desiring it. The satisfaction which comes from lawfully- 
gratified desires is generalized as happiness." 
16 



220 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Immediate Self-Emotions. — I am conscious of present 
good and evil. The self-emotions occasioned by con- 
templating the present with reference to self are called 
immediate egoistic emotions. You may extend at your 
leisure the list of these emotions, and explain and illus- 
trate each. 

Eetrospective Self-Emotions. — Memory brings back 
the past — the good we enjoyed and the evil we suffered. 
The emotions occasioned by contemplating the past 
with reference to self are called retrospective egoistic 
emotions. Notice that the self-emotions occur in pairs. 
Explain and illustrate each of the retrospective self- 
emotions in the preceding diagram. 

Education of the Egoistic Emotions.* — These feelings 
dominate in childhood, but later are dominated by 
altruistic and cosmic emotions. We find it necessary 
to appeal to self-emotions in the government of chil- 
dren. Some of the egoistic emotions can not be too 
earnestly cultivated ; among these we class cheerfulness, 
hope, desire for knowledge, and the desire to make the 
most of one's self. Great care, however, is needed to 
avoid the danger of self-emotion degenerating into self- 
ishness, and egoistic emotion into egotism. 

Comparative Psychology. — Brutes gain impressions 
something lower than ideas, and recall these impressions. 
The low forms of egoistic emotions, of which brutes 
are capable, are occasioned by impressions, immediate 
or revived. These brute emotions differ widely from 
rational egoistic emotions. Superficial investigators are 
in danger of being misled by deceptive appearances. 
Many of these brute feelings are instinctive; many 

* Sec " Education of Self-Emotions," " Applied Psychology." 



THE EMOTIONS— EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 221 

arise from sensuous impressions ; but the higher egois- 
tic emotions are wanting in brute life. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — What do you mean by feelings? Is feeling physi- 
cal or mental? Why do you call some feelings physical feelings? 
How do knowing and feeling differ ? What do you mean by feeling 
being blind ? 

What do you mean by emotions ? Illustrate. Show that we 
must know before we can have emotions. Why are the emotions 
called intellectual feelings ? Why are they called heart-powers ? 

What do you mean by egoistic emotions ? By altruistic % By 
cosmic ? Give an example of each. 

Why are egoistic emotions called self-emotions? Personal 
emotions ? Give the distinction between egoistic and egotistic. 

Give your analysis of regret ; of rejoicing ; of hope. What 
difference is there between a power to feel and a feeling ? Does the 
feeling always imply the power to feel ? 

What is the office of the egoistic emotions ? Why is self-preser- 
vation called the first law of nature ? How do these feelings tend 
to exalt self ? Illustrate. 

Name the first characteristic of the egoistic emotions ; the sec- 
ond. Illustrate each from your own experience. 

State the author's definition of the egoistic emotions; your 
definition ; McCosh's definition. 

What is meant by chronological ? By logical ? By pyschologi- 
cal? What are retrospective egoistic emotions ? Immediate? Pro- 
spective ? Give three examples of each. 

Write eight retrospective egoistic emotions ; eight immediate 
emotions ; eight prospective emotions. Why do you write the 
emotions in pairs ? 

What do you mean by the desires ? By the desire for life ? 
For property? For power? For beauty? For esteem? For 
perfection? For knowledge? What is happiness? Is it one of 
the primitive desires ? Give President Porter's views. 

When do the egoistic emotions predominate ? In the govern- 
ment of children, must these feelings be addressed ? Give some 
egoistic emotions which should be stimulated. Give some that 



222 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

should be repressed. Tell what you know about educating the self- 
emotions. 

Letter and Diagram. — You may construct a diagram of the ego- 
istic emotions which you may include in your letter to your friend. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 

These are feelings ministering to others. Good 

and evil as bearing on self call forth egoistic emotions ; 

but good and evil as bearing on others call forth altru- 

istic emotions. These feelings are known by these and 

similar 

r Altruistic Emotions. 

Sympathies and Antipathies. 
Names. < Affections and Disaffections. 

Benevolent Emotions and Malevolent Emotions. 

Loves and Hates. 

These expressions apply equally to our capabilities to feel these 
emotions and to the feelings. I have the power to love and I love 
my friend. I feel the emotion of pity; I am endowed with the 
capability to feel pity. 

The feelings occasioned by the realization of our 
relations to other beings are called altruistic emotions. 
Because we feel for and with others, these emotions are 
called sympathies. Because we incline to others, these 
feelings are called affections. Because we wish well to 
others, these feelings are called benevolent emotions. 
But we feel antipathies as well as sympathies; we hate 
as well as love. Altruistic emotion best expresses the 



THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 223 

meaning, including feeling against and from others, as 
well as feeling for and with others ; but the other names 
mentioned are expressive, and are fixed in our litera- 
ture. 

Analysis of Altruistic Emotions. — We notice a young 
man struggling against poverty and misfortune to edu- 
cate himself. We feel for and with him, we sympathize 
with him. We wish him success. We rejoice when he 
succeeds. The good Samaritan looked upon the un- 
fortunate traveler, robbed and wounded, and ready to 
die. He pitied him, and this pity moved him to ad- 
minister to his wants. By analyzing mother-love, 
friendship, emulation, and similar feelings, you dis- 
cover the 

Office of the Altruistic Emotions. — Self, as love, thinks 
no evil, suffers long, is kind. A neighbor is sick and 
needy. Your sympathies move you to cool his aching 
brow and minister to his needs. To icorJc good to others 
is the office of the altruistic emotions. 

Characteristics of the Altruistic Emotions. — These 
feelings are occasioned by ideas pertaining to others, 
and grow out of our relations to other beings. 

1. Altruistic emotions look to others. When be- 
nevolent, they prompt the good of others ; but when 
perverted, they become malevolent, and work ill to our 
neighbors. 

2. Altruistic emotions are feelings for and with 
others. My friend is fortunate; I rejoice with her. 
She is unfortunate ; I pity and aid her. The opposite 
is also true ; I may feel against and away from another, 
as when I envy my successful neighbor, or hate and 
seek to injure a rival. 



224: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

3. Altruistic emotions are two-sided. This is true 
of all emotions, but eminently so of these. Ingratitude 
is almost as common as gratitude. Hate too often domi- 
nates love. Antipathies are almost as wide as sym- 
pathies. 

Altruistic Emotions Defined. — We feel for or against 
others. Man is a social being endowed with capabili- 
ties to feel emotions that prompt the good of others. 
The mental agitations and impulses occasioned by a 
knowledge of our relations to others are called altruistic 
emotions. 

1. Altruistic emotions are capabilities to love or 
hate others. They are the powers to feel for and with 
others, or feel from and against others. They are the 
emotions that minister to others. 

2. Original. Work out a good definition. Illus- 
trate. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Sully : Altruistic emotion, in its 
perfect form, is feeling for and with others. 2. McCosh : Altruistic 
emotions are capabilities to feel an interest in others. 3. Brooks : 
Altruistic emotions are feelings which go out to another with a wish 
of good or evil. 4. White : The powers to feel good or evil toward 
others are termed altruistic emotions. 

Classes of Altruistic Emotions. — The terms expressive 
of these emotions are marvelously numerous. Charity 
has more than fifty English synonyms. The few groups 
of altruistic emotions inserted here will suggest to you 
the indefinite extension of the list. Clearly, some of 
these terms are synonyms ; but, for the most part, each 
expresses a distinct shade of feeling. You will find it 
profitable to linger over these terms, defining and illus- 
trating each from your own experience. 



THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 



225 



Altruistic . 
Emotions. ^ 



s r, ,. ( Same as Immediate, but looking 

f Prospective. — \ ,, . . ° 

( to the future. 

f Love or Hate ; Friendship or En- 
mity ; Trust or Jealousy ; Sym- 
pathy or Antipathy ; Good Will 
or Malice ; Pity or Indifference ; 
Admiration or Envy ; Adoration 
or Blasphemy; Reverence or 
Scorn. Etc., etc. 
Loving or Loathing; Interest or 
Indifference; Kindness or Un- 
kindness ; Gratitude or Ingrati- 
tude ; Philanthropy or Misan- 
thropy ; Mercy or Cruelty ; Good 
Humor or Anger; Honor or 
Shame. Etc., etc. 

Retrospective. i Same, as Immediate, but looking 

( to the past. 

Love. — The soul- energy that draws hearts together 
is called love. The lovely awakens love. We love the 
lovely. We can not love the hateful. 

1. Supreme love. God is love and He is altogether lovely. In- 
finite loveliness awakens our souls to their deepest depths. I love 
the loving Father with all my heart. Veneration, reverence, wor- 
ship, grow out of supreme love. Love tends to union. What at- 
traction is to the physical universe, love is to the spiritual universe. 
The one unitizes the world of matter ; the other the world of mind. 

2. Parental love. This is one of the purest and noblest of feel- 
ings. It unitizes the family, and works the highest good to off- 
spring. Mother-love is the salt of the earth. 

3. Conjugal love. An absorbing reciprocal affection makes of 
two lives one. Each family, united by love, becomes a paradise. 
Happiness comes from a union of hearts and a union of lives. 

4. Filial love. Loving and loved, children cheerfully yield to 
parental authority and counsel, and grow into lovely and loving 
men and women. 

5. Fraternal love. The offspring of the same parents are bound 
together by strong ties. As the race is one great family, the realiza- 



226 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

tion of the brotherhood of man and fatherhood of God leads to a 
higher exercise of filial and parental love. 

6. Love of friends. He is the friend indeed who sticketh closer 
than a brother. The love between David and Jonathan, and between 
Damon and Pythias, surpassed the love between men and women. 
Friendship is an ennobling emotion. A man who is true to his 
friends, though a robber, is capable of great things. True friend- 
ship never dies. 

7. Love of country. Love is the tie that binds together rational 
beings. We degrade this noble emotion when we call the instinctive 
affection of brutes, love ; and much more when we term the brutal 
lusts of men love. But patriotism may well be called the love of ' 
country. 

Sympathies. — Fellow-feelings, or feelings for and 
with our fellow-beings, are called sympathies. Sym- 
pathies bind social beings together. Oar impulses to 
do good to others spring from our sympathies. 

1. Growth of sympathies. Capabilities to feel, like capabilities 
to know, are endowments. Man is endowed with altruistic emotions, 
called fellow-feelings or sympathies. Very early the child laughs 
with those who laugh, and weeps with those who weep. Children 
respond to the emotions of their companions. Later, the youth 
represents to himself the joys and sorrows of others and sympathizes 
with them. When we can enter into another's inmost heart and feel 
for and with him, our sympathies are fully active. 

2. Analysis of acts of sympathy. Jesus at the grave of Lazarus 
is a perfect example. Study the details. In this, as in all acts of 
sympathy, the mental process seems to be as follows : (1) Observation 
is the first step. We must know the joys and sorrows of others. 
We must note the facial and vocal expression of emotion. (2) Inter- 
pretation of the signs of emotion is the second step. We recall our 
emotional experience. I have lost a parent. I can sympathize with 
my bereaved friend. (3) Imagination is the third step. I make real 
the peculiar disposition and circumstances of my friend and put my- 
self in his place, and thus enable myself to fully share his joys or 
sorrows. This is sympathy. Next to love, sympathy best expresses 
benevolent altruistic emotion. 

3. Suffering and Sympathy — It is only through our personal ex- 



THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 227 

periences that we gain the power of sympathizing with others. We 
should never be able to feel another's pain, if we had never felt a 
pain of our own. So it is in all the trials of our fellows ; before we 
can enter into the feelings of one who is tempted, or who is disap- 
pointed, or who is humiliated, or who is bereaved, we must ourselves 
suffer — being tempted, or being disappointed, or being humiliated, 
or being bereaved. It is hard to have these trials for ourselves ; but 
it is good for others that we have and exercise sympathy with those 
who are called to such trials for themselves. And, as we can never 
gain this power except through these trials, let us find a comfort in 
the thought that every trial sent to us is a call to added fitness in 
the all-important ministry of loving sympathy. 

Hates, Antipathies, Malevolent Emotions. — We may 

abhor sin and hate every evil way ; but when our hearts 
become bitter, and we would work the injury of others, 
our emotions are malevolent. These ugly emotions 
take many forms. Now anger, now spite, now malice, 
now revenge, now jealousy, but always bate. These 
bateful emotions drive social beings apart and fill the 
cup of misery. The less we have to do with them the 
bettor. While hating sin with a perfect batred, we 
may love sinners and seek to save them. Malevolence 
in all its forms is perverted and misdirected emotion. 
Malevolent emotions are perverted feelings ; they are 
not endowments but perversions. " God made man up- 
right." " The emotions are all good in themselves, and 
are not to be eradicated but guided." 

Play of the Emotions. — More wonderful than the 
combinations in music are the play and interplay of the 
emotions. The heart is truly an instrument of a thous- 
and strings. The key-board embraces many octaves. 
When attuned to harmony, its music is sweeter than 
the music of the spheres. Love fills the soul with bliss 
and inspires every noble endeavor. 



228 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Egoistic and Altruistic Emotions, incident to Success 
or Failure. — The thoughtful student will linger long 
over the following diagram, given by Dr. Bascom. You 
may here get a clearer insight into the emotion world 
than by reading volumes of theory. Look into the mir- 
ror of consciousness and see yourself in each emotion. 
With the diagram before you, rehearse your greatest 
success as well as your greatest failure. Tell the emo- 



Incident to 
success. 



As being 
achieved. 



Egoistic and 
Altruistic -{ 
Emotions. 



Incident to 
failure. "* 



Hope, 

Joy, 

Satisfaction. 
( Pride, 
As achieved by J Vanity, 
ourselves. | Courage, 

v Confidence. 

Gratitude, 

Good-will, 

Attachment. 

Admiration, 

Honor, 

Emulation. 

Fear, 

Disappointment. 

Discouragement. 

Humility, 

Shame, 

Mortification. 

Anger, 

Rage, 

Hatred, 
Through oth- J Malicej 

Jealousy, 
Envy, 
Defiance. 
Contempt, 

Pity, 

Compassion. 



By the aid of 
others. 



By others. 
r As occurring 



Through our- 
selves. 



To others. 



THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 229 

tions you felt in each case. !Now take Washington at 
the close of the Revolution, and Napoleon in his last 
imprisonment. Tell the emotions you imagine that 
eacli felt. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HIKTS. 

Eeview. — Define consciousness. State its office; its charac- 
teristics. What is a conscious - percept ? Name five. Give the 
distinction between physical feelings and instincts; between the 
physical feelings and the emotions. Give the definition, office, and 
characteristics of the egoistic emotions. Define and illustrate retro- 
spective, immediate, and prospective emotions. 

What do you mean by altruistic emotion ? Give the etymology 
of the word. Why are these feelings called sympathies ? affections ? 
benevolent emotions ? love? Why are they -also called antipathies? 
disaffections ? malevolent emotions ? hates ? Give examples of each 
from your own experience. 

What is the office of the altruistic emotions ? Give the three 
characteristics of these emotions. Illustrate. 

State the author's definition of the altruistic emotions; your 
definition ; the definition of Dr. Brooks. 

Give ten groups of altruistic emotions. Illustrate. Give ten 
synonyms of charity. 

Explain the seven kinds of love mentioned. Explain the mean- 
ing of sympathy. Illustrate by Jesus at the grave of Lazarus. 

What do you mean by malevolent emotions? Give some of 
these. Are these original endowments or perversions ? 

Tell about the play and interplay of the emotions. When is 
there harmony ? when discord % 

Give some egoistic emotions incident to success. Incident to 
failure. Give some altruistic emotions incident to success. Incident 
to failure. 

When is a feeling called a passion ? What is meant by the pas- 
sion for strong drink ? by the passion of anger ? by the passion of 
love ? by the passion of avarice ? by the passion of ambition ? What 
do you understand by the ruling passion ? 

Letter. — In a thoughtful letter you will tell about these enno- 
bling emotions. Inclose to your friend an analysis of this chapter. 



230 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER XXIL 

COSinC EMOTIONS — TRUTH EMOTIONS.* 

By cosmic emotions we mean the feelings occa- 
sioned by ideas of the true, the beautiful, and the good. 
The reign of law, the beauty of earth and sky, and the 
all-pervading good, fill me with a boundless joy. Ego- 
istic emotions terminate in self ; altruistic emotions ter- 
minate in others ; but cosmic emotions are boundless. 

( The Cosmic Emotions. 

2j a ) The Rational Emotions. 

j The Spiritual Emotions. 
I The Higher Emotions. 

Because these feelings belong peculiarly to our 
higher nature, they are called spiritual emotions. Be- 
cause only rational beings are endowed with these 
capabilities, the powers to feel in view of cosmic ideas 
are called rational emotions. Because the soul goes out 
to the universe in the feelings occasioned by the true 
and the beautiful and the good, they are called cosmic 

emotions. 

f Truth Emotions, or Knowledge Emotions. 
Cosmic Emotions — < ^Esthetieal Emotions, or Beauty Emotions. 

(. Ethical Emotions, or Duty Emotions. 

We are a part of a universe of related things, and 
we are endowed with powers to perceive things and 
discern relations. As one by one they open to our 
view, great truths thrill us. The feelings awakened by 

* Review Chapter XV before studying this chapter. 



COSMIC EMOTIONS— TRUTH EMOTIONS. 231 

truth are called truth emotions. We look without and 
within ; beauty charms us. The feelings occasioned by- 
beauty are called beauty emotions. We find out our 
relations to others ; we feel imperative impulses to do 
to others as we would have them do to us. These feel- 
ings are occasioned by ideas of right, and are called 
duty emotions. 

THE TRUTH EMOTIONS. 

By these we mean our capabilities to feel, in view 
of truth discerned. These feelings are known by the 
following 

( Truth Emotions. 
Names. — ■< Knowledge Emotions. 
' Philosophic Emotions. 

Because these emotions are occasioned by the dis- 
cernment of relations, they are termed philosophic emo- 
tions ; as they well up, in view of knowledge gained, 
they are termed knowledge emotions. 

Analysis of Truth Emotions. — Archimedes had 
studied long and hard to find the law of specific gravity. 
While bathing, the happy thought struck him. He ran 
out without his clothes, shouting " Eureka ! Eureka ! 
I have found it ! I have found it ! " He discovered an 
important truth which occasioned ecstatic truth emo- 
tions. Give examples from your own experience. 

Office of Truth Emotions. — Truth is the food of the 
soul. The discovery of truth occasions much of our 
deepest joy. 

1. Truth emotions move us to search for truth as 
for hidden treasures. A thirst for knowledge is deeply 
impressed upon our nature. 



232 ELEMENTARY TSYCIIOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. Truth emotions reward research with abiding joy. 
Happy are they who hunger and thirst after truth. The 
office of the truth emotions is to move us to seek truth, 
as well as to enable us to appreciate and enjoy the true. 

Characteristics of Truth Emotions. — We discern 
truths. In view of these truths, we feel truth emotion. 
The emotions of Harvey, when he discovered the circu- 
lation of the blood ; of Newton, when he discovered 
gravitation ; of Columbus, when he discovered a conti- 
nent, may be feebly imagined. 

1. Truth emotions are occasioned by truths dis- 
cerned. These emotions are deepest when truths are 
first discerned, but, like beauty, truth is a joy forever. 

2. Truth emotions are boundless — are cosmic. 
" We mingle with the universe and feel 

What we can not all express nor all conceal." 
Truth. Emotions Defined. — As you experience these 
emotions every hour, they are best defined by referring 
them to your own conscious experience. 

1. Truth emotions are otir capabilities to feel in 
mew of truth. Our feelings, occasioned by the discern- 
ment of truth, are truth emotions. 

2. Original. Construct a good definition and illus- 
trate it. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Bain: Knowledge emotions are the 
delights we experience when we discern truth. 2. Garvey : Truth 
emotion is the radical impulse to seek and enjoy truth. 3. Bascom : 
Truth emotion inspires pursuit and enjoyment of knowledge. 

Nature of Truth Emotions. — "I will return to my 
peaceful mathematics," was the resolve of a savant 
weary of political turmoil. " A night with the peace- 
ful stars is better than a thousand elsewhere." Truth 



COSMIC EMOTIONS— TRUTH EMOTIONS. 233 

emotions are usually peaceful, but when great truths 
burst upon the mind these emotions become torrents. 
Think of the emotions of Newton when he discovered 
the law of gravitation ; of Franklin, when he discovered 
the identity of electricity and lightning ; of Paul, when 
he first realized that Jesus was God. True education 
leads the learner to discover truth for himself, thus 
making student-life a perpetual joy. Though usually 
tranquil and peaceful, the truth emotions are an ever- 
flowing fountain. 

Growth of the Truth Emotions.* — Children are full of 
curiosity and open-eyed wonder. New objects delight 
them. Their troublesome questions are interminable. 
We discover the buddings of truth emotion. With the 
years the desire to find out increases and the joys of dis- 
covery multiply. Childhood revels in objective truth. 
Thinking the thoughts of God after him, delights child- 
hood and fills the soul of manhood with inexpressible 
joy. True teaching and right learning educate truth 
emotions. 

BUG GESTIVE STUD Y-HINTS. 

Review. — What do you mean by a faculty ? a power % a capa- 
bility ? a soul-energy % Give a distinction between a cognitive power 
and an emotional power. Is self active or passive when he feels! 
What do you understand by the soul acting as a unit? 

What do you mean by cosmic emotions 1 Why are these feel- 
ings called rational emotions ? spiritual emotions ? higher emotions ? 
cosmic emotions ? Give the termination of egoistic emotions ; of al- 
truistic emotions ; of cosmic emotions. 

What do you mean by the truth emotions % What distinction 
do you make between the powers to feel in view of truth and the 
feelings ? 

* Sec "Education of the Truth Emotions," "Applied Psychology." 



234: ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Tell the story of Archimedes; of Franklin's kite ; of Newton's 
apple. What do you call the feelings thus awakened? Why ? 

Give the office of the truth emotions ; of self emotions ; of al- 
truistic emotions. What feelings move us to search for truth? 
Give two characteristics of the truth emotions. 

Give the author's definition of the truth emotions ; give your 
definition ; give Bain's ; give Garvey's ; give Bascom's. 

Are truth emotions always peaceful ? Why should the learner 
be led to discern truth for himself? Tell about the growth and 
education of the truth emotions. 

Letter. — The treatment of the truth emotions is so brief that you 
need to further develop the subject. Make a good topical analysis 
of this chapter as a part of your letter to your friend. 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

AESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 

By these we mean our 'powers to feel in the presence 
of beauty. The feelings occasioned by beauty, sublim- 
ity, or humor are called aesthetic emotions. As beauty 
predominates, these feelings are often called the beauty 

emotions. 

{Emotions of Beauty or Ugliness. 
Emotions of Sublimity or Insignificance. 
Emotions of the Humorous or the Prosy. 

Analysis of Beauty Emotions. — You gaze upon the 
night-blooming cereus ; slowly the flower expands. 
You exclaim, " How beautiful ! " Your feelings occa- 
sioned thus are called beauty emotions. 

Characteristics of Beauty Emotions. — You are con- 
scious of peculiar feelings of satisfaction and joy in the 
presence of beauty of form, beauty of color, beauty of 



^ESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 235 

sound, beauty of motion, beauty of character. These 
feelings are beauty emotions. 

1. Beauty emotions are occasioned by the beautiful. 
We find beauty everywhere. We behold the beautiful 
landscape, and our souls thrill with beauty emotions. 

2. Beauty emotions are boundless — are cosmic. As 
we gaze upon the beautiful sunset, we forget self, for- 
get the world, and mingle with the universe. Like 
truth emotions, beauty emotions are complete in them- 
selves. They satisfy. 

Office of the ./Esthetic Emotions.— We live in a uni- 
verse of beauty and sublimity and humor, and we are 
endowed with capabilities to appreciate and enjoy 
beauty, sublimity, humor. The beauty emotions place 
the soul en rapport with the beauty world. Poetry and 
eloquence and song and the beauty of holiness and the 
beautiful earth and the sublimely beautiful heavens fill 
us with rapture. God is beauty. 

iEsthetic Emotions Defined. — Self, as noumenal per- 
ception, immediately beholds beauty. In view of 
beauty, self, as beauty emotion, feels beauty, joy, and 
satisfaction, and the impulse to produce and possess the 
beautiful. 

1. ^Esthetic emotions are the capabilities to feel in 
view of beauty. The beauty emotions are the soul-en- 
ergies to feel beauty. The agitations and impulses oc- 
casioned by beauty are esthetic emotions. Beauty as 
used here includes sublimity and humor. 

2. Original. Give a definition expressive of your 
views. What is sublimity ? What is wit ? 

Objective and Subjective Beauty. — What is beauty? 
All know, but no one can tell. Intuitively we per- 
17 



236 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

ceive concrete beauty, and consciously feel its spell. 
But the beauty idea is a necessary notion, is ultimate, is 
inexplicable. You may say that beauty is a thing of 
proportion and harmony ; you merely give two of its 
numerous attributes. "Whatever occasions beauty emo- 
tions we call beautiful, as the lily or the rainbow. 

1. Objective beauty. I look upon the blushing rose 
and feel beauty. I listen to songs of birds, and feel 
beauty. I read the " Lay of the Last Minstrel," and 
feel beauty. I ponder the life of Florence Nightin- 
gale, and feel beauty. The something external which 
occasions beauty emotions is called objective beauty. 
Space, time, causation, and objective beauty are external 
realities. Beauty is objective. 

2. Subjective beauty. By the subjective we mean 
the mind itself. Self stands face to face with beauty — 
knows beauty intuitively. We are endowed with the 
intellectual power to behold beauty. Self feels beauty 
when in its presence. We are endowed with powers 
to feel beauty. The capabilities to perceive and enjoy 
beauty are subjective. Perceiving and feeling beauty 
are acts of the mind, and may be called subjective 
beauty. Beauty is subjective. 

Ugliness. — The opposite of beauty is ugliness. If 
beauty is proportion and harmony, ugliness is the lack 
of these. The ugly gives rise to ugly emotions. Ugli- 
ness is not merely the absence of beauty, it is something 
external that occasions repellent and disagreeable emo- 
tions. The beautiful pleases, the ugly displeases ; the 
beautiful attracts, the ugly repels ; the beautiful occa- 
sions joyous emotions, the ugly occasions depressing 
emotions. We desire the beautiful, but have an aver- 



yESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 237 

sion for the ugly. Make a diagram of emotions inci- 
dent to beauty and ugliness. 

Beauty of Character is the highest type of beauty. 
When integrity, efficiency, and modesty blend in pro- 
portion and harmony, we have a Joseph, a Washington, 
a Jesus. Perfect character is perfect beauty. How- 
ever ugly the body, the beauty of holiness covers the 
grand man or woman with a halo of glory. All moral 
deformity is ugly. A base character, as a Judas or a 
ISTero, is the extreme of ugliness. 

Emotions of Sublimity. — A cascade is beautiful ; 
ISTiagara is sublime. Electrical experiments are beauti- 
ful; the thunder-storm is sublime. Dress-parade is 
beautiful ; the battle is sublime. Yastness occasions 
emotions of the sublime. Whatever carries the mind 
into the infinite occasions the idea and feeling of sub- 
limity. 

" Beauty pleases and delights ; sublimity awes, yet 
elevates." The emotion of insignificance is the oppo- 
site of the emotion of sublimity. Both emotions are 
occasioned by the familiar fable, " The mountain 
labored and brought forth a mouse." Give other ex- 
amples. 

Emotions of the Humorous. — In view of the ludi- 
crous, the witty, the humorous, the ego effervesces 
with pleasure. These emotions are called emotions of 
the ludicrous, of the witty, of the humorous. Isaac 
Barrow well says, " It may be demanded what the thing 
we speak of is, or what this facetiousness doth impart. 
To which question I might reply as Democritus did to 
him who asked the definition of a man. "Tis that 
which we all see and know ; any one better apprehends 



238 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

what it is by acquaintance than I can infer him by 
description. It is, indeed, a thing so versatile and mul- 
tiform, appearing in so many shapes, so many postures, 
so many garbs, so variously apprehended by several 
eyes and judgments, that it seemeth no less hard to 
settle a clear and certain notion thereof than to make 
a portrait of Proteus, or to define the figure of the 
fleeting air. Its ways are unaccountable and inexplica- 
ble, being answerable to the numberless rovings of 
fancy and windings of language.' " 

The emotions occasioned by the flat or the dry are 
the opposite of those occasioned by sparkling wit. 
" Humor, however strange it may seem, is very com- 
monly associated with sympathy. It was remarked by 
Sir Walter Scott of Robert Burns, when he appeared 
in Edinburgh, that in his conversation there was a 
strange combination of pathos and humor. I am sure 
that these two, humor and sympathy, often go together. 
The man who never laughs, or who can not laugh 
heartily, I suspect is deficient in tenderness of heart, 
while he may be characterized by many virtues. Cer- 
tain it is that in the writings of many of our great 
authors pathos and humor are found in the closest con- 
nection. " I believe that the fountains of smiles and 
tears lie nearer each other than most people imagine." * 
Education of the .Esthetic Emotions. f — "We are rap- 
idly reaching the conclusion that aesthetic culture is as 
important as intellectual culture. To this end, home is 
made beautiful, and the modern primary school, as well 
as the kindergarten, is full of beauty. Environments, 

* McCosh. 

t See " Education of Beauty Emotions," " Applied Psychology." 



AESTHETIC EMOTIONS. 239 

objects, pictures, songs, plays, art-work, all tend to de- 
velop the beauty emotions. As the learner advances, he 
is thrilled with higher and still higher forms of beauty. 
What a revolution ! 

S UG GESTIVE STUD Y-HINTS. 

Review. — What do you mean by the emotions ? What distinc- 
tion do you make between egoistic, altruistic, and cosmic emotions ? 
Do ideas cause emotions, or merely occasion them ? 

What do you mean by the altruistic emotions'? Is a capability 
to feel beauty and a beauty feeling the same ? Illustrate. Name 
the classes of aesthetic emotions. 

Analyze three cases of beauty emotions ; three of the sublime ; 
three of the humorous. 

State the office of the beauty emotions; of the emotions of 
sublimity ; of the humorous emotions ; give examples in each case. 

Tell the characteristics of beauty emotions ; of sublimity emo- 
tions ; of humorous emotions ; give examples in each case. 

Repeat the author's definition of aesthetic emotions ; your defini- 
tion ; definitions of Haven, Bain, etc. 

What is beauty ? Objective beauty t Subjective beauty 1 Give 
an example of objective beauty ; of subjective beauty. 

What do you mean by ugliness? Give examples. Explain 
what you mean by beauty of character. Give examples. What is 
an ugly character ? Give examples. 

Tell what you know about sublimity. How do beauty and sub- 
limity differ? Give examples. 

Tell what you know about humor. How do wit and humor 
differ ? Illustrate. 

Tell what you know about the culture of the aesthetic emotions. 

Letter. — In your letter tell about the beauty emotions in poetry 
and art. 



240 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



Analysis of Chaptees XXII and XXIII. 

I. The Cosmic Emotions are : 

The truth emotions. The aesthetic emotions. 

The ethical emotions. 

II. Analysis of 

1. Truth emotions. 2. Beauty emotions. 

3. Sublimity emotions. 4. Humor emotions. 

III. Office of 

1. Truth emotions. 2. Beauty emotions. 

3. Sublimity emotions. 4. Humor emotions. 

IV. Characteristics of 

1. The truth emotions. 2. The aesthetic emotions. 

V. Definitions of 

The truth emotions. The aesthetic emotions. 

Beauty. 
1. Objective. 2. Subjective. 

VI. Emotions of Sublimity. 

VII. Emotions of Humor. 

VIII. Education of 

1. Truth emotions. 2. ^Esthetic emotions. 



CHAPTER XXIY. 

CONSCIENCE, OR TIIE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 

By conscience is meant the power to feel ethical 
emotions in view of right. The ethical emotions are 
the feelings occasioned by perceiving and discerning 
right. These feelings tend to universal right, and 
hence are classed with the truth emotions and the 
beauty emotions as cosmic emotions. 



Names, 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 241 

r Conscience, or the Ethical Emotions. 
The Emotions of Conscience. 
The Emotions of Right. 
The Emotions of Good. 
The Duty Emotions. 



As these emotions look to good, to right, to duty, 
they are called duty emotions, emotions of the right, 
emotions of the good, and emotions of conscience. By 
common consent the capability to feel Tightness is 
termed conscience, and the feelings incident to ideas 
of right and wrong are called emotions of conscience, 
or ethical emotions. 

Analysis of Ethical Emotions. — Take Paul : " I perse- 
cuted Christians conscientiously, for I thought I ought." 
Because he believed Jesus to be an impostor, he felt it 
his duty to crush out Christianity. The feeling " I 
ought " moved Paul to persecute. He believed it was 
right, and felt that he ought. The impulses to do what 
we believe to be right are impulses of conscience. Take 
Joseph Reed. "When tempted to betray his country by 
the offer of $50,000 and high office, Reed replied, " I 
am not worth purchasing ; but, such as I am, the King 
of Great Britain is not rich enough to buy me." He be- 
lieved that it was wrong to sell his country. The feel- 
ing "I ought not" moved Reed to refuse the bribe. 
The impulses to refuse to do what we believe to be 
wrong are impulses of conscience. 

Office of Conscience. — Conscience is the mental power 
to feel rightness. Self, as conscience, always moves to 
the right. " Get right and keep right," are its impera- 
tives. To feel rightness is the sole office of conscience. 
But ethical emotions are prospective, immediate, or 



242 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

retrospective ; hence the three imperatives of con- 
science : 

1. Find out the right. Self, as intellect, finds out right, but 
self, as conscience, inspires the search, " Be sure you are right, then 
go ahead." I wish to invest in a tempting lottery ; is it right f I 
am offered $10,000 to lobby a bill through Congress ; ought I to accept 
the offer? Is it right to play cards, attend theatres, dance, flirt, 
drink wine, or smoke ? At every step these troublesome questions 
meet us. The impulses of self as conscience to find out the right 
are ethical emotions. Paul acted blindly but conscientiously. Be- 
cause he refused to investigate, and went on blindly persecuting 
Christians, he calls himself the chief of sinners. The world is full 
of these sincere wretches. The sun shines, but men shut their eyes 
and declare there is no sun ; or, if there is, they can not see it. Find 
out the right is the first imperative of conscience. 

2. Choose and do the right. Do right is the deepest impulse of 
the heart. You have investigated to the utmost. You believe tem- 
perance is right and drinking intoxicants wrong. Appetite craves 
alcohol. Conscience says, " Touch not, taste not, handle not — the 
accursed thing." The impulse to choose temperance and live tem- 
perately is an emotion of conscience. You repress your lawless 
brute cravings and act in accord with your ethical emotions. You 
choose and act conscientiously. Choose and do the right is the 
second imperative of conscience. 

3. Get right and keep right. Peter denied Christ. Remorse, 
the supreme agony, overwhelmed him. Remorse, as a reformatory 
energy, is conscience pleading, " Cease doing wrong and begin doing 
right." The mute pleadings of conscience aroused Peter, and he be- 
came the bravest of the brave. Continuing wrong is the unpardon- 
able sin. The drunkard signs the pledge ; his heart glows with deep- 
est satisfaction. This is conscience moving him to keep right. The 
emotion of duty done is the highest joy. It sustains us amid all 
trials. It sustains the martyr at the stake. Paul exclaims, " I have 
kept the faith, and will receive the crown." When we do right, we 
feel the approval of the Author of right ; but, when we do wrong, we 
feel his disapproval. The poet has beautifully expressed this idea: 

"An approving conscience is the smile of God, remorse his frown." 
Get right and keep right is the third imperative of conscience. 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 243 

Characteristics of Conscience. — Since conscience is our 
only power to feel Tightness, it is easy to distinguish 
ethical emotions from other feelings. Other marked 
characteristics in addition to those given may be pointed 
out. 

1. Ethical emotions are incident to ideas of right 
and wrong. No other ideas occasion these feelings, nor 
do these emotions occur except in connection with ethi- 
cal ideas. Brutes are incapable of gaining ethical ideas, 
and hence feel no ethical emotions. 

2. Ethical emotions are imperative. Conscience is 
the only imperative soul-energy. / ought, do right, 
etc., are the imperatives of conscience. Moral law is 
supreme, as are the emotions of right. Not may but 
mast is the ethical feeling. " I can not tell a lie " ; I 
can not afford to do what I believe to be wrong ; I can 
not afford to disregard my ethical impulses. 

3. Ethical emotions dominate. Pleasure, self-in- 
terest, and even love must yield to the imperative of 
conscience. " Do right though the heavens fall." " I 
would rather be right than be President." These are 
good illustrations. Conscience is the supreme soul- 
energy. Intellect and will, as well as all the lower feel- 
ings, yield to conscience. 

Definitions of Conscience. — What is conscience ? It 
is not knowing, for self, as intellect, does all his know- 
ing. It is not choosing, for self, as will, does all his 
acting, choosing, and directing. It is not a compound 
faculty, for a faculty is a mental element. Clearly, 
conscience is the power to feel rightness. 

1. Conscience is the power to feel ethical emotions 
in mew of ethical ideas. It is the mental energy to 



244 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY- AND EDUCATION. 

feel in the presence of right and wrong. The capability 
to feel rightness is an ultimate endowment of the human 
souh No analysis can resolve the emotion of right ; no 
synthesis can derive these emotions from other feelings. 
As the impulsion to right is a mental activity, distinct 
in kind, we are compelled to class conscience as a mental 
faculty. "When the rubbish is removed, and the mists 
are cleared away, how royally conscience stands out in 
the mental economy ! 

2. Original definitions. You may write out your 
definition of conscience. There must be no mystery. 
Let there be sunlight clearness. The vast range of feel- 
ings occasioned by a knowledge of right and wrong are 
termed ethical emotions. The capability to feel ethical 
emotions is called conscience. Our impulses to do 
what we believe to be right are acts of self as con- 
science. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Dk. I. Q. John : Conscience is the 
moral impulsion in man. 2. Hopkins : Conscience is the impulse 
felt by a rational being to obey law. 3. Bascom : Conscience is the 
power to perceive and feel obligation. 

Remarks. — Self, as conscience, feels rightness, in view of ethical 
ideas. But all ideas are intellectual products. Self, as will, moved 
by ethical emotions, chooses right. Confounding conscience with its 
antecedents, ethical ideas, and its consequents, ethical actions, occa- 
sions endless confusion. Ethical ideas, ethical emotions, and ethical 
actions are as distinct as gold, silver, and copper. Because emotions 
of right are central, conscience is often used to include its antece- 
dents and consequents. But the psychologist must sharply distin- 
guish between knowing right, feeling right, and doing right. In the 
light of intelligence, we feel impulses to choose and do what we 
believe to be right. The power to feel oughtness is conscience. 

Ethical Knowledge. — How do we find out what is 
right % Precisely as we find out what is true in botany. 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 245 

The moral universe is an objective reality. Into this 
world we have direct insight. 

1. Ethical percepts. Self, as noumenal perception, immediately 
knows concrete right. You observe a noble woman treating kindly 
a starving old man, and notice his deep gratitude. You know intui- 
tively that the act of kindness and the act of gratitude are right. 
We perceive concrete right. 

2. Ethical concepts. We think ethical percepts into ethical con- 
cepts. We perceive many acts of kindness and of gratitude, and we 
know directly that each is right. We discern resemblances and 
think these acts into groups. This group of kind acts becomes kind- 
ness, and this group of grateful acts becomes gratitude. 

3. Ethical judgments. We think ethical concepts into ethical 
judgments. We discern agreement between the notions right and 
gratitude, and say gratitude is right. We discern incongruity be- 
tween the notions right and ingratitude, and say ingratitude is 
wrong. 

4. Ethical laws. We discover laws. I investigate light. I find 
that in this case and this, its intensity varies inversely as the square 
of the distance. As nature is uniform, I find that I have discovered 
a law of light. So in ethics I perceive that honesty is right in this 
case and this. 1 find that honesty tends to the general good, and 
that men everywhere believe that they ought to be honest. Moral 
as well as physical forces are constant. I have discovered a moral 
law. Ethical knowing is purely intellectual : it is self, as intellect, 
investigating the moral world. 

Conscience is not a Moral Guide. — Self, as intellect, 
finds out what is right. Self, as conscience, feels a 
strong impulse to do what he believes to be right. 
Steam impels the boat, but the pilot guides. Con- 
science is the moral impulsion in man, bat intellect 
guides. To call conscience a moral judgment, or a moral 
sense, or a moral guide, tends to hopeless confusion. 

Conscience in Literature. — A crude psychology is 
imbedded in literature. The distinctions between in- 
tellect, emotions, and will, are not always clearly dis- 



246 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

cerned. A blind feeling is often represented as intelli- 
gent. The conception of a faculty as an ultimate and 
inexplicable endowment of the soul, as a simple and 
distinct capability, is modern. Even the etymology con, 
with, and sciens, knowing, embodies, as I think, a fun- 
damental error. Bat the thoughtful student need not 
be misled. Errors wrought into human thought can be 
removed only by the slow processes of time and the 
leaven of truth. However, the common sense of the 
race has ever been right. Conscience to the masses is 
simply a feeling of Tightness. " It was an error of the 
head (intellect) not of the heart (conscience)," gives the 
true idea. " My judgment was at fault but my inten- 
tions were good," is sound psychology. " Conscience 
doth make cowards of us all," and " The righteous are 
bold as a lion," give the correct meaning. 

Intentions and Conscience. — Intentions are purposes. 
"What were your intentions % Self, as consciousness, 
perceives his intentions. We can not be mistaken as to 
our intentions. 

1 . Good intentions are purposes to do what we be- 
lieve to be right. When we act with good intentions 
we act conscientiously. Paul believed he ought to per- 
secute the Christians. He did it "in all good con- 
science," for his intentions were good. 

2. Bad intentions are purposes to do what we be- 
lieve to be wrong. When we act with bad intentions 
we act unconscientiously. Judas knew that it was wrong 
to betray Christ. He acted unconscientiously, for his 
intentions were bad. I know always with absolute cer- 
tainty whether my intentions are good or bad. It is 
the certainty as to good intentions that makes the right- 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 247 

eous bold as a lion. One man with good intentions shall 
chase a thousand. 

" He whose cause is just is trebly armed." 
It is the certainty as to bad intentions that causes 
the wicked to flee from shadows. " The wicked flee 
when no man pursueth." 

Conscience is Infallible. — Every one is liable to reach 
false conclusions, and to consider the right wrong, or 
the wrong right. But conscience, as invariably as the 
needle points to the pole, moves us to choose and do 
what we deem the right. The good man is a conscien- 
tious man. A conscientious man habitually does what 
he believes to be right. A bad man is one who habitu- 
ally chooses and does what he believes to be wrong. 
Conscience is not a guide ; intellect guides. Conscience 
is the infallible impulse to do what we consider right. 

Must we, then, always obey our consciences % Cer- 
tainly. Conscience moves us to search for right with 
all our powers. Conscience never fails to move us to 
do what we consider right. We must obey. 

Intuitive Ethical Ideas. — The moral universe is as 
real as the physical. Moral agents, moral phenomena, 
moral laws, moral obligations, and moral responsibilities, 
are objective realities. We are endowed with the 
power of direct insight into the ethical world. Moral 
phenomena are what is right or wrong in conduct. 

Self stands face to face with ethical phenomena, and 
immediately perceives necessary ethical ideas. Take 
the actions of the Good Samaritan and the Levite as 
an object lesson. Here, right and wrong are acted. 
By direct insight, you gain the concrete ideas, right, 
ought, merit, and their opposites. Concrete right and 



248 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

wrong are ethical phenomena. I need not prove to you 
that the Levite did wrong, or that the Good Samaritan 
did right; you know it intuitively. This right and 
this wrong are ethical percepts. Concrete (night and 
ought not are ethical intuitions. You know at once 
that the Good Samaritan ought to have acted as he did, 
and that the Levite ought not to have acted as he 
did. The ideas this ought and this ought not are ethi- 
cal percepts. Concrete merit and demerit are ethical 
intuitions. A big boy strikes his kind mother. Even 
the little child cries "Shame!" and intuitively blames 
the unnatural son. You know at once that the Good 
Samaritan merited praise while the Levite deserved 
blame. The ideas this merit and this demerit are ethi- 
cal percepts. 

Intuitive Ethical Truths. — Necessary inferences from 
necessary ideas may be called intuitive truths. The 
axioms of ethics, like the axioms of mathematics, are 
intuitive truths. We venture to submit the following 
statements : 

1. Moral law. The uniform ways in which moral forces act are 
called moral laws. As physical phenomena occur uniformly, in the 
same way, we Infer that physical law reigns in the physical world. 
As moral phenomena are uniform in all lands at all times, we infer 
the reign of moral law in the moral world. 

2. Author of laiv. From the existence of right and laws of 
right, we infer a law-giver. After half a century of philosophic re- 
search, Herbert Spencer gives his final summary: "Amid all mys- 
teries, there remains the one absolute certainty — we are ever in the 
presence of the infinite and eternal energy, from whom all things 
proceed." Mr. Spencer voices the conclusion of all thinkers. In the 
same way we reach moral certainty. Moral law necessitates a moral 
law-giver. 

3. Law and its author are beyond and superior to self. This 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 249 

inference seems to be unavoidable. We are subjects of law. Law 
reigns within and around us. Obedience to law works our good. 

4. Self is responsible to law and its author. We are capable 
and free. Law is the rule of right, and works for our good. We 
are under obligations to obey law. As we are capable and free, we 
are responsible for our acts. Morality is thus based on the rock. 

laws of Conscience. — The mental energy which 
prompts the choosing and doing of what we deem right 
is called conscience. The uniform ways in which this 
energy acts may be called the laws of conscience. We 
submit a few examples : 

1. Conscience works in the light of intelligence. Ethical emo- 
tions are agitations and impulses occasioned by ideas of right. In 
the absence of ethical knowledge, ethical emotions are impossible. As 
the brute has no ethical ideas, it feels no ethical impulses. 

2. Conscience invariably moves to acts believed to be right. Intel- 
lectually, it is human to err. Mistakes of judgment are unavoidable. 
The Hindoo mother believes that she ought to sacrifice her child. 
Paul believed he ought to persecute Christians. But the action of 
gravity is not more constant than the impulse to do what we believe 
to be right. 

3. Acting conscientiously strengthens conscience. Education by 
doing applies to the ethical emotions. As exercise strengthens 
muscle, and remembering strengthens memory, so acting conscien- 
tiously strengthens conscience. Moral theories and moral sermons 
may help or hinder. Only habitually doing what we believe to be 
light can make us strong to do right and resist wrong. 

4. Suppressing ethical emotions weakens conscience. Doing 
what we believe to be wrong is disregarding or suppressing our 
emotions of right. As restraining the limbs weakens them, so dis- 
regarding conscience tends to weaken ethical emotions. 

Growth of Conscience. — Yery early, children give 
indications of ethical emotions. "When child-experience 
involves right and wrong, concrete right is perceived 
and the impulse toward right felt. But the egoistic 
emotions and the physical feelings are now strong, and 



250 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

largely determine child action. Conscience moves to 
the right, but moves feebly. Year by year the ethical 
emotions grow stronger. Do right, the imperative of 
conscience, more and more influences action. Later, 
the ethical emotions begin to dominate all other im- 
pulses. .Now the child has become a conscientious 
moral agent, doing the right because it is right. 
Growth of conscience is indicated by the wonderful 
changes from feeble ethical impulses felt by the child 
to the dominant ethical emotions felt by the conscien- 
tious man. 

"The conscience," says Dr. McCosh, "grows as all living things 
do, but it grows from a germ. The faculties of the mind, like the 
properties of a body, are all of the nature of tendencies. There are 
intellectual tendencies in infants and savages, but they need to be 
called forth and ripened by light and by heat directed toward them. 
It is the same with the moral power ; it is in all men native and ne- 
cessary, but it is a germ requiring to be evolved. It grows as the 
oak grows. As the tree needs earth in which to root itself and air 
of which to breathe, so the conscience needs a seat in our mental 
sphere, with a stimulus to make it germinate and expand. When 
reared in a bare soil, it will be dwarfish. When exposed to cold and 
blighting, it will be stunted and gnarled. In a good soil and a 
healthy atmosphere, it will be upright and well-formed. In particu- 
lar, it grows and spreads out with the intelligence which enables it 
clearly to apprehend facts and to discover the consequences." 

Education of Conscience." — Moral theories do not 
make moral men, nor does the possession of a conscience 
make any man virtuous. 

1. Bight doing develops conscience. — Habitually 
doing what one believes to be right develops the moral 
faculty. Intellectual culture does not necessarily pro- 
mote conscientiousness. Indeed, great thinkers are 

* See " Education of Conscience," " Applied Psychology." 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 251 

sometimes monsters of depravity. Bacon was desig- 
nated as the wisest and meanest of mankind. He knew 
the way, approved it, too, but still pursued the wrong. 
Sermons and moral lectures are good, but preachers' 
children and even preachers may be very immoral. 
Acting conscientiously alone educates conscience. 

2. Non-use or misuse weakens conscience. One 
who constantly disregards the urgings of conscience 
will have a weak conscience. Just as a person who 
seldom recalls his experiences will have a weak memory. 
Conscience, as an impulse to right and a restraint from 
wrong, becomes weak, becomes seared, because un- 
heeded. Not so conscience as remorse. Too late, 
apathy gives place to this dread fiend. Remorse 
comes to stay. The guilty soul agonizes in almost 
hopeless despair. "I knew my duty, but did it not," 
touches the deepest depths of human woe. 

3. Sowing wild oats. In the light of history, Froude 
says : " Remorse may disturb the slumbers of a man 
who is dabbling in his first experience of wrong ; and 
when the pleasure has once been tasted and is gone, 
and nothing is left of the crime but the ruin which it 
has wrought, then, too, the Furies take their seats upon 
the midnight pillow. But the meridian of evil is, for 
the most part, left unvexed, and when a man has chosen 
his road, he is left alone to follow it to the end." 
Would you lift the curtain and know the end ? Witness 
the death-scene of Charles IX of France. Ponder the 
fate of Jean Yaljean. Study Macbeth and the dream 
of Clarence. Ponder the miserable end of a Judas, 
an Arnold, a Burr. Remorse is a sure crop. 

4. As happiness results from law obeyed^ so misery 

18 



252 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

follows law violated. A beggar on good terms with 
his conscience is infinitely better off than the guilty 
millionaire or wicked king. As you sow, so shall you 
reap. All human experience verities this truth. " A 
man's character is but the stamp upon his soul of the 
free choice of good or evil through life." " Sow acts, 
you reap habits ; sow habits, you reap character ; sow 
character, you reap destiny." 

5. Train iij> the child in the way it should go. 
" Before knowledge place culture, and before culture 
place character." Keep the children's faces toward the 
light ; keep their hearts open to the truth ; keep them 
doing, ever doing, right things, and let the wrong se- 
verely alone. Wrong is never so distinctly compre- 
hended as when purity shines upon it from the depths 
of a truth-loving heart. Never allow a child to think 
a wrong thing or form a wrong ideal, if it is possible to 
prevent it. Lead children to spend their precious time 
in doing right. 

" Happy are they who hunger and thirst after right- 
eousness." Let beatitudes take the place of curses ; let 
the eternal do take the place of the everlasting " don't." 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — You may ascend the pyramid, denning and giving 
the office of each mental power until you reach conscience. 

What is meant by conscience ? Why are our feelings in the 
presence of right called ethical emotions ? emotions of right % emo- 
tions of good ? duty emotions ? conscience ? 

Analyze three acts of conscience. When you feel ought or ought 
not, is it an act of conscience ? Tell the story of Reed ; of Washing- 
ton ; etc., etc. 

State the office of conscience. Name the three imperatives of 
conscience. Give two examples of each. 



CONSCIENCE, OR THE ETHICAL EMOTIONS. 253 

Mention the first characteristic of conscience ; the second ; 
third. Give two examples of each. 

Give author's definition of conscience ; your definition ; defini- 
tion of Dr. John, etc. Criticise definition of Bascom. 

What are the antecedents of acts of conscience ? Consequents ? 
Is conscience knowing right, feeling right, or doing right ? 

How do you find out what is right ? How do we get ethical 
percepts ? ethical judgments ? ethical laws ? Give an example of 
each. Show that ethical knowing is purely intellectual. 

Show that conscience is not a moral guide. Illustrate. What 
powers guide us ? 

Give the etymology of conscience. Does this give the correct 
idea? Is conscience always correctly used in literature? Has the 
common sense of the race been correct on this as on most subjects ? 

What do you mean by intention % How does conscience make 
cowards 1 

What do you mean by fallible? infallible? Is self as judg- 
ment fallible or infallible? Is conscience fallible or infallible ? Il- 
lustrate by the magnetic needle. What do you mean by a good 
man ? a bad man ? Must we always obey conscience ? 

How do we gain concrete ethical ideas ? Give five examples. 
What are moral phenomena % Do we have direct insight into the mor- 
al world ? Illustrate by the good Samaritan. Show how we gain the 
concrete ideas — ought, ought not, merit, demerit, praise, blame, etc. 

Analysis of Chaptee XXIV. 

I. Names. 

Conscience. The ethical emotions. 

The emotions of conscience. The emotions of right. 
The emotions of good. The duty emotions. 

II. Acts of Conscience Analyzed. 

A right act. A wrong act. 

III. Office of Conscience. 

1. Find out right. 2. Choose and do right. 

3. Get right and keep right. 

IV. Characteristics of Conscience. 

Ethical emotions occasioned by right. 
Ethical emotions imperative. 
Ethical emotions dominant. 



254 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



V. 



VI. 



Conscience Defined. 

1. Author's definition. 
3. Various definitions. 



Ethical Knowledge. 

1. Ethical percepts. 
3. Ethical judgments. 

VII. Intentions. 

1. Good intentions. 



VIII. 



IX. 



X. 



XI. 



XII. 



XIII. 



2. Original definition. 

2. Ethical concepts. 
4. Ethical laws. 

2. Bad intentions. 

2. A good man. 



Conscience Infallible. 

1. An infallible impulse. 
3. A bad man. 

Intuitive Ethical Ideas. 

1. Right and wrong. 
3. Merit and demerit. 

Intuitive Ethical Truths. 

1. The reign of moral law. 
3. Law superior to self. 

Laws of Conscience. 

1. Conscience works in the light. 

2. Conscience always moves to duty. 

3. Conscience is strengthened by doing right. 

4. Conscience is weakened by doing wrong. 



2. Ought and ought-not. 
4. .Responsibility and 
irresponsibility. 

2. Author of law. 

4. Self responsible to law. 



Growth of Conscience. 

1. Feeble in children. 
3. Dominates in youth. 

Education of Conscience. 

1. Right doing. 

3. Sowing wild oats. 

5. Keep the face to the light. 



2. Gradually gains power. 
4. McCosh's views. 



2. Non-use. 
4. Happiness. 



THE EMOTIONS— GENERAL VIEW. 255 

CHAPTER XXV. 

THE EMOTIONS — GENERAL VIEW. 

Emotions are strung on ideas as gems on golden 
cords. Emotions are feelings occasioned by knowledge. 
The golden sunset, the song of birds, and the fragrant 
flowers, as they come to us in waves of light and sound 
and odor, thrill us with pleasure. As we explore na- 
ture and life, science, biography and literature, the en- 
tire key-board of our emotional nature responds, and 
moves us to act well our parts. We feel while we 
know, and will while we feel. 

{1. Perceptive Knowledge. 
2. Representative Knowledge. 
3. Thought Knowledge. 
3. Will. 

The emotions are the capabilities of self to feel in 
view of ideas. The feelings occasioned by knowing are 
termed emotions. The capabilities to feel in view of 
knowing are by some called the intellectual feelings. 
" The heart powers " is the expression of the masses. 
The head with them means the intellect ; and the 
heart, the emotions. Formerly, heart was often used 
in the sense of mind ; now it is used to include our 
emotional powers, and is often restricted to our affec- 
tions. The emotions — the powers to feel in view of 
knowing — is every way the preferable name. 

The Emotions. 
Names. — -J The Intellectual Feelings. 
The Heart Powers. 



256 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Mind as emotion moves outward. Some feelings 
look to self, and hence are called egoistic emotions. 
Some feelings are termed altruistic emotions, because 
they look to others. But the feelings that look to the 
truth world, the beauty world, and the duty world, are 
called cosmic emotions. When an emotion arises from 
contemplating the past, it is termed a retrospective emo- 
tion. A present emotion is called an immediate emo- 
tion, but a feeling occasioned by contemplating the 
future is termed & prospective emotion. We thus reach a 
satisfactory and convenient classification of the emotions. 

Retrospective. 

C 1. The Egoistic Emotions.— \ Immediate. 

Prospective. 

Retrospective. 

, 2. The Altruistic Emotions. — -{ Immediate. 
The Emotions. — -< ^ 

v. Prospective. 

r Retrospective. 

3. The Cosmic Emotions. — < Immediate. 

( Prospective. 

The egoistic emotions are our powers to feel in 
view of self. The feelings occasioned by ideas pertain- 
ing to self are called egoistic emotions. The power to 
feel and the feeling are as distinct as perception and 
perceiving. Personal emotions means emotions pertain- 
ing to the person. Self emotions and egoistic emotions 
better express the meaning. As these emotions arise 
from contemplating self with reference to the past, the 
present, or the future, they are called retrospective, im- 
mediate, and prospective emotions. 

The Egoistic Emotions. \ t Retrospective. 
Names.— ■{ The Self Emotions. V -j Immediate. 

The Personal Emotions. ) ' Prospective. 



THE EMOTIONS— GENERAL VIEW. 



257 



The altruistic emotions are powers to feel in view 
of others. The feelings occasioned by ideas pertain- 
ing to others are termed altruistic emotions. When we 
feel for and with others, these feelings are called sym- 
pathies, affections, benevolent emotions, love, etc. ; but 
when we feel away from and against others, they are 
termed antipathies, disaffections, malevolent emotions, 
hate, etc. 



Names. 



Altruistic Emotions. 
Sympathies and Antipathies. 
Affections and Disaffections. 
Benevolent and Malevolent Emo- 
tions. 
Love and Hate. 



1 



Retrospective. 



Immediate. 



Prospective. 



The cosmic emotions are our powers to feel in mew 
of the true, the beautiful, and the good. These feel- 
ings are termed cosmic emotions. Because they are 
limited to rational beings, they are named rational emo- 
tions. As they are occasioned primarily by noumenal 
percepts, they may be called noumenal emotions. Some 
name these feelings spiritual emotions and higher emo- 
tions, because of their tendency to exalt the soul. Self 
as cosmic emotion goes out to the universe. These feel- 
ings are as boundless as the universe and eternity. Cos- 
mic emotion seems to express the exact meaning. 

Retrospective. 



The Cosmic Emotions. 
The Rational Emotions. 
Names. — -{ The Spiritual Emotions. 
The Noumenal Emotions 
The Higher Emotions. 



y< 



Immediate. 



Prospective. 



The cosmic emotions are occasioned by cosmic know- 
ing. Self, as noumenal-perception, has immediate in- 



258 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

sight into the truth world, the beauty world, and the 
duty world. We know intuitively, in their concrete 
forms, the true, the beautiful, and the good. But self 
as reason finds out what is true, what is beautiful, what 
is right. In the presence of truth we feel truth emo- 
tions. In the presence of beauty we feel beauty emo- 
tions. In the presence of right we feel duty emotions. 

{The Knowledge Emotions, or Truth Emotions. 
The ^Esthetic Emotions, or Beauty Emotions. 
The Ethical Emotions, or Duty Emotions. 

Physiology of the emotions. The soul is embodied 
in an organism. The interaction between mind and 
body is wonderful. Study that expressive face under 
the play of diverse emotions. How joy lights up the 
countenance ! How grief drapes the face in gloom. 

" When ideas are of objects appetible or inappetible they stir up 
emotion. We have a glimpse of the way in which the feelings work 
in the brain. The idea which evokes the feeling, and is its sub- 
stratum, works in the cerebrum ; and the excitement produced, like 
the original sensation, may be partly mental and partly bodily — the 
bodily excitement often rising to movements in changes of color, in 
paleness and redness of countenance, in blushing and in trembling, 
in laughter and in tears. It is the office of psychology to unfold the 
emotions ; it is the business of physiology to trace the bodily affec- 
tions from the brain downward to the nerves and fibers." * 

The Human Temperaments.f — " The temperaments are formed 
by the proportion of those elements that enter into the bodily struct- 
ure, causing the diversities in shape, form, and mental characteris- 
tics that we observe; and whether we employ the words 'lymphatic, 
sanguine, bilious, and nervous,' or ' vital, motive, and mental,' to 
denote the bodily constitution of individuals, these terms correspond 

* McCosh. 

+ Superintendent J. M. Greenwood iu " Principles of Education Practi- 
cally Applied." 



THE EMOTIONS— GENERAL VIEW. 259 

to those real distinctions which prompt the possessor to move or act 
in a certain direction. The mind is a unit ; it manifests its activity 
in various directions. A distinct kind of mind activity is called a 
faculty of the mind ; consequently, there are as many faculties of 
the mind as it has distinct kinds of- activity. In like manner, the 
body is one organism, constructed upon temperamental conditions. 
The manner of their combination produces tendencies either to men- 
tal activity or to sluggishness, causing all those variations in human 
nature that we observe. When the intellect, sensibility, or will pre- 
vails, there is found a corresponding temperamental development 
which exerts a controlling influence, and shapes and colors the whole 
character of the possessor. He lives and acts in harmony with his 
nature. Teachers furnished with eyes, eai*s, good sense, and an in- 
clination to study, can tell what tendencies prevail in the pupils 
they are called upon to teach. This is justly regarded as the key to 
eminent success." 

SUGGESTIVE STUD Y-HINTS. 

Beview. — Study this chapter with the tree (p. 56), and the pyra- 
mid (p. 204), and the diagrams of the egoistic, altruistic, and cosmic 
emotions before you. 

What distinction do you make between knowing and feeling ? 
between an intellectual power and an emotion ? Illustrate. Explain 
the logical order of mental activity. Do we feel while we know? 
Do we will while we feel f 

Define the emotions. Explain the names given to these capa- 
bilities. Why do you prefer the term emotion ? 

Explain the classification of emotions. Illustrate retrospective, 
immediate, and prospective emotions. Define the egoistic emotions. 
Explain the several names applied to these feelings. Are these 
names equally expressive ? 

Define the altruistic emotions. Explain the various names 
given to these feelings, and state your preference. 

Define the cosmic emotions. Why do you prefer this to the 
other names applied to these feelings? Name the groups of cosmic 
emotions. Define each. What do you mean by cosmic knowledge 1 

Illustrate the physiology of the emotions. What is the office 
of psychology ? of physiology i 



PART VI. 
THE WILL-POWERS. 



CHAPTER XXVI.— Attention. 
XXVII.— Action. 
XXVIII.— Choice. 
XXIX.— The Will-Powers.— General View. 



PSYCHOLOGICAL PYEAMID. 



=d THE WILL 

y | power: 



CHOICE. 

ACTION. 

ATTENTION. 



THE 



THE COSMIC EMOTIONS. 
THE ALTRUISTIC EMOTIONS. 
NS - I THE EGOISTIC EMOTIONS. 



W | PHYSICAL 
FEELINGS. 



THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

THE GENERAL SENSES. 

THE APPETITES. 



INSTINCTS. 



HUMAN INSTINCTS. 

COMMON INSTINCTS. 

STRICTLY BRUTE INSTINCTS. 



REASON. 

JUDGMENT. 

CONCEPTION. 



REASONS. 
IJUDGMENTS.I 
i CONCEPTS. 



/REPRESENT-/ 
ATIVE 

POWERS. 



IMAGINATION. 
PHANTASY. 
MEMORY. 



IDEALS. 
[PHANTASMS.1 C 

o 

MEMORIES. I $ 



THE 

/PERCEPTIVE/ 

POWERS. 



NOUMENAL-PERCEPTION. 

CONSCIOUS-PERCEPTION. 

SENSE-PERCEPTION. 



iNOUMENAL- 
PERCEPTS. 

| CONSCIOUS-} 
PERCEPTS. 

SENSE- 
PERCEPTS. 



SIXTH PART. 

THE WILL-POWERS. 



By these we mean our capabilities to attend, deter- 
mine, and act. Will is the power to make intentional 
efforts. Knowing, feeling, willing is the logical order 
of soul activity ; hence we place at the summit of the 
psychological pyramid the will-powers. 



3. THE WILL-POWERS. 



2, THE EMOTIONS. 



1. THE COGNITIVE POWERS. 



Knowing occasions emotion ; emotion occasions 
choice and action. The telegram states that your 
brother is dying ; you are grieved to the heart ; you 
hasten to soothe him in his dying hour. 



3. Action. 
•{ 2. Choice. 
1. Attention. 



You concentrate your powers on the geometry les- 
son ; self, as attention, concentrates his efforts. You 
determine to spend vacation in California; self, as 
choice, determines. You execute your plan ; self, as 



264 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

action, executes his determinations. Because choice is 
the pre-eminent will-power, we place it as the cap-stone 
of the psychological pyramid. 

Will, Emotion, Intellect. — Will is mind in liberty. 
Voluntary acts are intentional acts. We are endowed 
with capabilities to form and execute plans. Liberty, 
intention, and volition are the characteristics of will, 
and distinguish the will-powers from the emotions and 
the intellect. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

ATTENTION.* 

By attention is meant tlie power to concentrate our 
efforts. Self, as attention, concentrates his efforts, pro- 
longs his efforts, and changes his efforts. Like con- 
sciousness and memory, attention in some degree enters 
into all distinct mental activity. What the will can do 
is to fix the attention. 

1. Self, as attention, concentrates effort. — As we can, under an 
adequate motive, observe one point in the scene before us and ne- 
glect everything else ; as we can single out one sound and be deaf 
to the general hum ; as we can apply ourselves to the appreciation 
of one flavor in the midst of many, or be aware of a pressure on a 
particular pai't of the body to the neglect of the rest — so in mental 
attention we can fix one idea firmly in the view, while others are 
coming and going unheeded. 

2. Attention is characteristic of cultivated minds. — In the 
uneducated and badly educated it is more or less wanting. The 
power of giving the whole of the mind to any subject or work, what- 

* Re-examine Chapter I; also, see "Education of Attention," "Ap- 
plied Psychology." 



ATTENTION. 265 

ever be its nature, without permitting it to wander, is not common, 
and where it does exist it is usually the result of severe discipline. 
The mind, while it is the most active agent with which we are ac- 
quainted, is also one of the laziest. Not lazy through idleness, but 
because it shirks. It loves to remember, for remembering is not 
work. It loves to form phantasms, for phantasy is sport, day-dream- 
ing is pleasant. It loves reverie. It does not love to think, for 
thinking is work. Whoever has taught children and observed their 
ways closely has a thousand proofs of this. Place a spelling-book in 
the hand of a little boy and watch him. Nine times out of ten he 
will try to learn his task by going over it a great many times. The 
mind is shirking, for the mind does not work that way. It is his 
mental effort to get the lesson without fixing his whole attention. 
He is trying to substitute a great deal of mechanical repetition for 
a little hearty mental labor. The whole power of his mind is never 
absorbed in his task. When the mind is fully at work, when the 
whole power of attention is aroused, it always does one thing at a 
time. This is a foundation or beginning principle in education. 

3. Much novel-reading is mental shirking. This 
is true as a ru]e. The novel-reader drifts, not think- 
ing or even imagining; self seems to be little more 
than emotion and phantasy. An excessive novel-reader 
becomes incapable of concentrated and prolonged ef- 
fort. Though a woman in years, she may be a child 
mentally. Only the concrete and emotional interest 
her. She is incapable of solid reading, or penetrating, 
abstract study. She is a human butterfly. 

4. Attention can be educated. Education must ac- 
custom the learner to an exact, rapid, and many-sided 
attention, so that at the first contact with an object he 
may grasp it sufficiently and truly, and that it shall not 
be necessary for him always to be changing his impres- 
sions concerning it. {The treatment of Attention in 
Chapter I is considered sufficiently extended for an 
elementary work. 



266 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

ACTION, OR EXECUTIVE VOLITION. 

Self does tilings — acts. Action engages full half 
our mental energies. Self, as action, executes his 
determinations, and thus makes ideals actuals. The 
capability to cany impulse or determination into action 
is called executive volition, or action. In general, action 
includes all efforts of body and. soul ; but the term is 
here used in the sense of executive volition. Action 
is the power of self to execute his determinations. 

( Action. 

J Executive Volition. 
Names.— -j Executive fower# 

v Volition. 

Acts of Executive Volition analyzed. — Charles, on his way to 
school, met Robert, who begged for his company for a hunt. Charles 
desired to enjoy the sport, and his impulse was to go ; but he de- 
liberated, weighing the pleasures of the hunt against the benefits of 
the school, and the painful consequences of playing truant. After 
a few moments he decided to go on to school. Without a moment's 
delay, he acted — executed his choice — and proceeded on his way to 
school. 

I know that my neighbor is in need. Shall I administer to his 
wants ? I fix my mind upon the question — I attend. Indifference 
and avarice move me to leave the matter to others. The grudge I 
have against the needy one moves me to let him suffer. Conscience 
strongly moves me to go to his relief. In view of these conflicting 
urgings, I make up my mind to help my neighbor — I choose. I 
now direct my efforts to devising ways and means to execute my de- 
termination and form a plan. Next I execute my plan, administer- 
ing to my neighbor's wants — I act. You readily perceive in these 
simple acts the distinctive work of each of the three will-powers. 



ACTION, OR EXECUTIVE VOLITION". 267 

Office of Executive Volition. — We are endowed with 
the capability to do things intentionally. Brutes exe- 
cute their impulses ; men execute their determinations. 
In the mental economy the office of executive volition 
is to carry choice into action ; as when you spend the 
evening with your sick friend instead of going to the 
theatre. 

Impulsive Action. — Only deliberative acts are rational. When 
impulse is carried directly into action it is called impulsive action. 
A large proportion of human as well as brute acts are of this kind. 
But action, as here used, applies to intentional, pui-posed, delibera- 
tive acts. 

Characteristics of Action. — We do things intention- 
ally, purposely, deliberatively. I intentionally pruned 
the pear-tree. I purposely took a walk. I deliberately 
signed the contract. When we act with a purpose, the 
act is executive volition. 

1. Self, as action, carries choice into execution. A 
being without this power might form plans, but could 
not carry them out. The engineer might plan a bridge, 
but could not actualize his ideal. 

2. Self, as action, does intentionally and freely 
what he does. After careful deliberation you deter- 
mined to become a student ; now you intentionally and 
freely devote yourself to student work. 

Action Defined. — You are conscious of power to 
carry out your plans. The capability to execute plans 
is termed action. Yolition is self acting. 

1. Action is the jJOiver of self to execute his determi- 
nations. We can do what we determine to do. Yoli- 
tion is will in action. 

2. Original definition. What do you mean by 

19 



268 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

action? "Write a clear definition and give two illustra- 
tions. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Hazard: Action is the power to 
make effort. 2. Brooks : Executive volition is the power to carry 
choice into action. 3. Porter : Action is the power to execute pur- 
poses. 4. Haven : Executive volition is the capability to put 
choice into action. 5. Bain : Executive volition is the power for 
purposed action ; the tendency to put forth effort is inherent in our 
constitution. 

Kinds of Action. — An act may be mechanical, impul- 
sive, or deliberative. 

1. Reflex action. Such acts as breathing, winking, 
walking, ordinarily are reflex actions, and are strictly 
physical. The acts of the lower orders of animals 
and of young infants are almost wholly reflex. 

2. Impulsive action. The infant is attracted by the 
glittering toy and tries to reach it ; there is no delibera- 
tion, no choice, but simply impulse and action. The 
brute feels, and carries impulse directly into action. 
There is no deliberation, no rational choice. When we 
act from impulse and without purpose, our acts are im- 
pulsive acts. Instinctive action is impulsive action. 

Simple and Complex Impulses. — When a single impulse moves to 
action, the action is termed an act from a simple impulse; but when 
two or more conflicting impulses move to action, the action is 
termed an act from complex impulses. In all cases the act itself is 
simple. 

1. Acts from simple, impulses. The dog wants the meat, and im- 
mediately seizes it. The child desires the flower, and immediately 
plucks it. These are simple impulsive acts. 

2. Acts from conflicting impulses. The dog has been punished 
for his acts. Now dread of punishment contends with a craving 
for the meat. Mother has told the child not to pluck certain 
flowers. Now the little one wavers between the desire for the 



ACTION, OR EXECUTIVE VOLITION. 



269 



flowers and the dread of its mother's disapproval. The acts resulting 
are from conflicting impulses, but the acts themselves are simple acts. 

3. Deliberative or rational action. Rational be- 
ings deliberate before acting. Impulse is subordinated 
to reason. Self, as reason, weighs the considerations. 
In view of all the reasons, we choose and act; such 
action is rational action. 
as here used. 



This is the meaning of action 



SENSORIUM AND MOTOEIUM. 




INTELLECTIVE 
GANGLIA. 



EMOTIVE 
GANGLIA. 



MOTOR 
GANGLIA. 



MOTOR 
NERVES. 



SENSOR 
ORGANS. 



SPECIAL. GENERAL. 



EYES, 
EARS, 

NOSE, 

MOUTH, 

SKIN, 



MUSCLES, 

STOMACH 

LUNGS, 

HEART, 

ETC> 



MOTOR 
ORGANS. 



Action and Motion.* — We again stand face to face 
with the profound mystery of interaction between mind 
and matter. We know that self as sense-perception is 
affected by matter, and that self as will affects matter. 
Self as volition excites the motor ganglia. The motor 
excitation passes in molecular waves through the motor 
nerves to the muscles. In response to motor excitation, 
the muscles contract and relax, thus producing motion. 



* See pages 45 and 52. 



270 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

How self excites the motor ganglia is to ns an insoluble 
mystery; but, like all similar mysteries, the solution 
could not profit us now. We can afford to wait. 

" To move any part of the body voluntarily requires the follow- 
ing particulars : (I) The possession of an educated reflex-motor 
mechanism, under the control of those higher cerebral centers which 
are most immediately connected with the phenomena of conscious- 
ness; (2) certain motifs in the form of conscious feelings that have 
a tone of pleasure or pain, and so impel the mind to secure such 
bodily conditions as will continue or increase the one and discon- 
tinue or diminish the other ; (3) ideas of motions and positions of 
the bodily members, which previous experience has taught us answer 
more or less perfectly to the motifs of conscious feeling ; (4) a con- 
scious fiat of will, settling the question, as it were, which of these 
ideas shall be realized in the motions achieved and positions attained 
by these members ; (5) a central nervous mechanism, which serves 
as the organ of relation between this act of will and the discharge of 
the requisite motor impulses along their nerve-tracts to the groups 
of muscles peripherally situated. As to the definite nature of the 
physical basis which underlies the connection of ideas of motion, fiat 
of will adopting one idea, and the starting outward of the right mo- 
tor impulses, our ignorance is almost complete. Self, as will, can 
issue his fiat, but can do nothing more. Science, at the present, can 
only conjecture what then takes place/" * 

Language and Action. — In its broadest sense^ lan- 
guage includes all communications from the inner to 
the outer world. Motion is the means used. Take 
away motion and the universe becomes silent and dumb. 

1. Language is the intentional expression of cogni- 
tions, feelings, and purposes, by means of motion. 
Self, as action, utters ideas, emotions, and determinations 
by signs, by sounds, and by symbols. 

2. Reflex action s%ip>plements volition. You inten- 
tionally speak to your friend ; what proportion of the 

* G. T. Ladd, "Physiological Psychology." 



ACTION, OR EXECUTIVE VOLITION. 271 

movements are reflex ? You intentionally write a 
letter; how much of the action is reflex? You play 
and sing ; how largely are the movements reflex ? You 
carve a Madonna ; what proportion of the movements 
are reflex ? Some estimate that fully nine tenths of the 
movements in these acts are strictly reflex. How infi- 
nitely wonderful are speech and song and art ! 

3. Music, the language of the emotions, is a thing 
of motion. Destroy movement, and dead silence reigns. 
The grand strains that lift us up and insjnre us are pro- 
duced by means of motion. 

Habit and Action. — Effort of body or mind is called action. . By 
habit we mean acting without effort. In bodily activity, the first 
steps are always taken with consciousness, which is often painful in 
its intensity ; but by repetition the same acts are performed with 
little or no consciousness. Walking, to a baby, is a solemn act, re- 
quiring its whole attention ; walking, to us, is automatic. The tyro 
in music or in the crafts is awkward, constrained, and intense in his 
attention to the movements of his work ; the master is intent on the 
end, the movements being made with the minimum of consciousness. 
Indeed, so long as a part of the attention is necessarily directed to 
the manner of doing, the work will be imperfect. 

In mental processes the same truth holds. Thinking, in any 
new direction, is usually slow and laborious, but with practice it 
moves with ever-increasing freedom. The child, in adding, pauses, 
hesitates, and thinks at each step ; the accountant grasps results 
with mechanic-like precision. The housewife performs her cookery 
while chatting with a neighbor upon topics foreign to the occupa- 
tion, the work going on semi-automatieally.* 

Growth of Action. — Movement, in some form, is cer- 
tainly the earliest animal activity. At first the move- 
ments are purely reflex. Yery early the infant begins 
to try to do things. Slowly it gains a mastery over the 
body. The helpless babe becomes the active, graceful 

* James Jolionnot. 



272 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

child. Action gives pleasure. "Education hj doing' 1 '' 
is based on the intense activity of this faculty during 
childhood and youth. 

Education of Action.* — Intentional effort tends to de- 
velop executive volition. The child is full of impulses 
to action, but these efforts need to be directed. Well 
guided action is an important feature of child education. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HLXTS. 

Review. — Carefully ascend the pyramid. Define each group of 
faculties and state the office of each faculty in the group. Define 
each faculty and give its characteristics. 

What do we mean by the will-powers? Distinguish between 
intellect, emotion, and will. Illustrate. 

What is meant by attention ? Give its office and its character- 
istics. Illustrate the importance of educating attention. 

What do we mean by action ? Why is this power called execu- 
tive volition ? Analyze a voluntary act. 

Give the office of action. Illustrate the distinction between 
impulsive acts and determined acts. 

State the characteristics of action. What do you mean by in- 
tentional action ? Illustrate. 

Give author's definition of action; your definition; Hazard's; 
Bain's. 

Explain and' illustrate reflex action ; impulsive action ; rational 
action. In what sense is action here used ? 

Show that the soul as will originates motion. Trace motion 
from the inner to the outer world. Explain the motorium (see p, 45). 

What is language 1 How do we express our thoughts ? our emo- 
tions? our resolves? What proportion of our movements is reflex 
action ? 

Explain habit and action. Describe the growth of action. How 
are motives related to rational action ? 

letter. — You will take time to prepare a well-digested letter to 
your friend. 

* See " Education of Action," " Applied Psychology." 



choice. 273 

Analysis of Chaptee XXVII. 

I. Names. 

Action. Executive volition. 

Executive power. Volition. 

IT. Acts of Volition Analyzed. 

Rational acts. Impulsive acts. 

III. Office of Action. 

Self executes choices. Self carries impulse into 

action. 

IV. Characteristics of Action. 

1. Is voluntary. 2. Is intentional. 

V. Definitions of Action. 

Author's. Original. Various definitions. 

VI. Kinds of Action. 

1. Reflex action. 2. Impulsive action. 

3. Rational action. 

VII. Impulsive Acts. 

From a simple motive. From conflicting motives. 

VIII. Action and Motion. 

Mind a causa sui. The motorium. 

IX. Development of Action. 

1. Growth. 2. Education. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

CHOICE. 

By this is meant the power of preference. Shall I 
spend my vacation in Europe or in the Yellowstone 
Park ? After long deliberation I finally make up my 
mind to go to Europe. I prefer visiting the Old 



274 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

World. I choose in view of motives. I determine to 

spend my vacation in a foreign land. 

r Power of Choice. 

Names.- J Power of Preferenee - 

j Power of Self-Determination. 

[ Will. 

I am rational, benevolent, free ; I am a person. I 
am endowed with the power of self-determination ; I 
am a sovereign. I can prefer one thing to another ; I 
am free to choose. I determine for myself ; ■ I am inde- 
pendent. I originate activity ; I am a creative first 
cause. Because I am endowed with the capability to 
choose, I am a man and not a brute. Because I can at 
will originate motion, I can understand the universe. 

Acts of Choice Analyzed. — What is choosing? You 
carefully scrutinize some of your own acts of choice. 
What mental processes precede choice ? What follow 
choice ? What do you do when you choose ? Now 
take this example : Moses chose to suffer with his peo- 
ple rather than be king. Ambition and pleasure con- 
tended with duty, but Moses did not hesitate. With 
him right outweighed kingdoms. He made up his 
mind to cast in his lot with his enslaved people. He 
preferred duty to pleasure. He chose to suffer for the 
right rather than rule in the wrong. You find that his 
choice was occasioned by motives or reasons for choos- 
ing. You find that his determination to stand by his 
people was his choice. You also find that his choice 
was followed b} r action— a life devoted to the good of 
his people. You will be profited by analyzing the 
choice of Solomon, of Naomi, etc. 

Office of Choice. — In the mental economy, self, as 



choice. 275 

choice, decides. The power of self-determination is the 
master faculty of the soul. You make up your mind, 
you determine, you choose. 

1. Self, as choice, determines. Washington made 
up his mind to propose to Mrs. Custis, and she made up 
her mind to accept him. Making up your mind, decid- 
ing, determining, and choosing, are expressions for the 
same mental act. 

2. Self, as choice, originates activity. You deter- 
mine to take a walk. Your choice starts nerve-currents 
which incite muscular action. Napoleon chose to stake 
his fate upon a single battle, and many thousand soldiers 
fought at Waterloo. 

3. Self, as choice, prefers. Clay preferred being 
right to being President. You prefer education to 
riches. The patriot exclaims, " Give me liberty, or 
give me death." Choice is the power of preference. 

Characteristics of Choice. — We find nothing in the 
material world with which to compare this activity. 
Matter is passive ; only mind is endowed with sponta- 
neity. Choice stands alone, and man is the only terres- 
trial being that can say " I will." 

1. Choice is uncaused cause. The choice is made 
in view of motives, but the motive is the reason for 
choosing, and not the cause of the choice. I determine 
to build a house ; the choice is the cause of the build- 
ing, but the determination to build is occasioned and 
not caused. The power to originate movement is called 
choice or will. Take away this power, and a man 
ceases to be a person and becomes a mere machine. 

2. Avoidability characterizes choice. The thief 
takes my horse, but he could have done differently. 



276 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Whatever choice I make, I am conscious that I could 
have chosen otherwise. A voidability characterizes 
choice. I am responsible. 

3. Self is free to choose. Choice is mind in liberty. 
It is the power to determine as one pleases. Liberty 
is a necessary idea. I know intuitively that I am free. 
Self, as choice, is unrestrained. 

Choice Defined. — " Choice is the power of self to de- 
cide what he will do." " Choice is the capability to 
initiate acts." " Choice is the power of preference in 
view of motives." " Choice is the power of spontane- 
ous determination." "Choice is mind in liberty." 
" Choice is personal cause." " Choice is the capability 
to elect one of two or more alternatives." Here we 
find substantial agreement. Whatever their theories, 
thinkers a^ree as to the office of choice, and view with 
awe this marvelous power. All men know what it 
means, yet here we meet the profoundest of mysteries : 
man is a creative first cause. 

1. Choice is the power to determine in view of mo- 
tives. 

2. Original. Construct a definition of your own. 

3. Various Definitions. — 1. Harris : Choice is the power of self- 
determination. 2. Bain: Choice is the capability to decide. 3. 
Bascom: Choice is the power to close deliberation and initiate action. 
4. Hazard : Choice is the mental energy that originates motion. 

Motives occasion Choice. — Motives are incentives to 
choice. Ambition incited Macbeth to murder. Mo- 
tives are mere considerations, and may be intensified 
or weakened at will. A strong motive is simply a pow- 
erful incentive to choice. A weak motive is merely a 
slight incentive to choice. The soul, as choice, is sov- 



CHOICE. 277 

ereign ; motives incite, but are subject to the pleasure 
of the sovereign. Motives are reasons for choosing, 
but choice is rational self-determination made in view 
of motives. I make up my mind to take a trip to 
Europe. My motives are to get rest and to behold the 
wonders of the Old World. 

1. Low motives are incentives to gratify the appe- 
tites and passions, regardless of law. Appetite moves 
the inebriate to drink to intoxication. The debauchee 
is a creature who is a willing slave to his appetites. 
In him the low motives prevail. 

2. High motives are incentives to right and noble 
choices. Conscience ever incites us to choose what we 
consider right. Right is the highest of all motives. 

Choice — its Antecedents and Consequents. — As we 
have advanced, it has become more and more apparent 
that the soul is a unit, and that a faculty is merely 
one of its capabilities. Rational choice involves each 
capability of the soul ; we feel while we know, and will 
while we feel. 

1. Antecedents of choice. Rational beings work in 
the light. We choose in view of motives. (1) Self, as 
intellect, evolves and weighs motives. A motive is sim- 
ply a reason for choosing. Before deciding upon a plan 
of work of great moment, you tax all your intellectual 
faculties to the utmost. (2) Self, as emotion, in view 
of ideas, feels impulses to choose. Our higher emotions 
move us to choose the true, the beautiful, and the 
good. Our appetites and passions clamor for gratifica- 
tion regardless of law. 

2. Choice. Self, as choice, decides or chooses, and 
thus ends the strife of contending emotions. Without 



278 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

intelligence, rational choice is impossible. Without 
emotion, we should never choose. The antecedents of 
choice are knowing and feeling. We know, we feel, 
we choose. This law of mental succession is as in- 
variable as the laws of gravity. Ideas occasion emo- 
tions ; ideas and emotions occasion choice. 

3. Consequents of choice. As ideas and emotions 
lead on to choice, so choice leads on to action. We 
execute our determinations — we act. Rational choice 
necessarily precedes rational action. Rational acts are 
consequents of rational choice. Cognition, choice, 
action : this is the logical as well as the chronological 
order of soul-activity. 

Choice and Motion. — The correlation of energies leads 
us back and back to a primary energy — back and back to 
the primary energy. Reason can not stop short of the 
infinite First Cause. Self, as will, is a j)rimary energy. 

1. Self, as choice, initiates motion. Matter is neces- 
sarily passive ; only mind is self-acting. I determine to 
place my hand on my head ; this act is purely mental. 
The determination, as I suppose, in some unknown way 
causes molecular motion in the motor ganglia ; the vibra- 
tions continue through the motor nerves ; the excitation 
affects the muscles, causing them to contract and relax ; 
my hand moves as I determined it should. I originate 
motion. Mind controls matter. That self as choice 
originates motion, seems certain ; but how mind acts on 
matter is the unsolved mystery. 

2. Self, as choice, dominates the body. So universal 
consciousness testifies. I walk, I sit, I speak, 1 write ; 
at will I act in these ways. Why do you sing ? " Be- 
cause I choose to." Why do you read? "Because I 



choice. 279 

choose to." This is the language of the human race, 
and it is sound psychology. Our spiiits dominate the 
house of clay in which we sojourn. 

3. The infinite %oill moves the universe. I am con- 
scious that my finite will moves my material body, and 
am thus enabled to apprehend the stupendous truth that 
the infinite will moves the universe and is the original 
cause of all movement. As I move my body, Jehovah 
moves the universe. As my body is subject to my will, 
so the universe is subject to " the infinite and eternal 
energy from whom all things proceed." 

Choice and Law. — Law is choice. Human determi- 
nation becomes human law. Divine determination be- 
comes divine law. 

1. Laws of nature. The infinite determinations 
impressed upon mind and matter are called the laws of 
nature. 

The laws of attraction are the divine will impressed 
upon material things. Mental laws are the infinite will 
impressed upon mind. 

2. Expressed laws are expressed determinations. Ex- 
pressions of human determinations become human laws. 
Determinations of the parent become laws to the child. 
Legislative determinations become laws to the people. 
Endowed with finite will and the capability to make 
finite laws, we can apprehend the infinite will and in- 
finite laws. 

Fatalism — Choice is caused. — The fatalist intrenches 
himself behind the following chain of argument : 

i. Self, as intellect, perceives and elaborates, but 
does not originate. Sensations cause perceptions, and 
perceptions cause thought. 



280 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

2. Self, as emotion, feels, but knowing causes 
feeling. 

3. Self, as will, chooses, but knowing and feeling 
cause him to choose. 

4. We can not avoid choosing as we do, for motives 
cause choice. 

5. Liberty, merit, responsibility, are misnomers, for 
man is a mere automaton. 

6. There is no God, for there is no uncaused cause. 
Man is a hopeless atheist. 

Classing mind as a material force, and viewing 
choice from the stand-point of the conservation of 
force, the fatalist weaves around himself his fatal 
web. 

Liberty— Choice is uncaused cause. — Choice is mind 
in liberty. We are free to choose. Motives occasion but 
do not cause choice. The following facts are summoned 
as witnesses : 

1. Universal consciousness attests the freedom of 
self as choice. You and all rational beings are conscious 
of liberty in choosing. You know that you are a self- 
determining being. Choice is mind in liberty. 

2. Literature represents man as free and responsible. 
This characterizes the literature of all ages and peoples. 
Only theorists are fatalists. Common sense, in all the 
ages, has built upon the rock of personal liberty. 

3. Law is based on the freedom of choice. Because 
he knows that he could have chosen and acted otherwise, 
the criminal considers his punishment just. 

4. Liberty of choice is a necessary truth. What- 
ever choices we have made, we know that we could 
have chosen otherwise. Self, as noumenal perception, 



CHOICE. 281 

stands face to face with his acts of choice. We know- 
intuitively that we are free to choose. Being free, we 
are responsible, and merit and demerit characterize our 
choices. 

5. Choice is uncaused cause. You decide to sing 
" Hail, Columbia." Your determination originates 
motion. The self-activity that originates motion is a 
first cause. Self, as choice, is a creative first cause. 
Realizing in ourselves creative free-will, we apprehend 
the infinite free-will. Man is a hopeful theist. 

" The question whether man is so far an automaton that his will 
is stimulated to action through the agency of feelings produced by 
knowledge over which he has no control, is as old as philosophy. 
And perhaps no man lives who has distinctly raised the question in 
its application to himself, and who has not decided it in the nega- 
tive. We are conscious of our own freedom." 

Growth of Choice. — Will includes all active operations 
of mind. The motor ganglia, the motor nerves, and 
the muscles are the active organs or implements of will. 
Determinations to act initiate movements. 

1. Reflex action. In early infancy, all movements 
are reflex. The infant strikes and kicks and crows 
automatically. Reflex action seems to prepare the 
organism for voluntary action. 

2. Voluntary action. When a child or brute tries 
to act in a certain way, the act is called voluntary. All 
intentional acts are voluntary. The infant begins to 
turn the head to keep the light in view. This is still 
reflex action. But, when the babe tries to grasp the 
light, we call the effort the beginning of voluntary 
action. At first, impulse leads directly to action. There 
is no deliberation, no choice. 



282 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

3. Determined action. After two or three years of 
effort, the child gets command of itself. It walks, it 
runs, it talks. Its acts are now voluntary. But action 
still follows, for the most part, from impulse. Now the 
child begins to consider before yielding to impulse. 
Mollie hesitates to go with Willie, because ma will not 
like it, and at last she chooses not to go. From these 
almost imperceptible beginnings, the power to deter- 
mine in view of motives and to adhere to plans, steadily 
grows. Growth makes the difference between the im- 
pulsive and pliant child and the man of iron will. 

Education of Choice.* — " What you achieve is simply 
a question of will." The men and women of great will- 
power move and rule the world. The soft and pliant 
Damocles, the wishy-washy thing, and the vacillating 
creature with no mind of his own, are the ciphers of 
society. Decision of character is the basis of a grand 
manhood. The superior man chooses for himself, 
forms his own plans, and changes not, except for suffi- 
cient reason. Development of choice calls into activity 
all the faculties, gives decision of character, and tends 
to a grand manhood. 

Comparative Psychology. — Instinct and perceptive in- 
telligence guide brute action. Brutes do not deliberate. 
Impulse becomes action. Brutes are not endowed with 
the power of rational choice, and hence are not moral 
beings. As brutes are destitute of the power of choice, 
they are not responsible. Brute impulse dominates 
brute action ; hence, merit and demerit do not apply to 
brute actions. 

* See " Education of Choice," " Applied Psychology." 



CHOICE. 283 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY-HINTS. 

Review. — You may now ascend the psychological pyramid to 
the summit. Show that each faculty is merely a distinct capability 
of self. Show that the soul is a unit in action. What is meant by 
a mental power ? What do you mean by the will-powers ? Explain 
the other names. 

What do you mean by the power of choice ? Give the names 
designating this power, and tell why each is used. 

Analyze one of your acts of choice. What precedes rational 
choice ? what follows ? What do you do when you choose ? 

Give the first characteristic of choice ; second ; third. Illus- 
trate each. 

What is the office of choice 1 Give the first example ; the sec- 
ond ; the third. 

Give the author's definition of choice ; give your definition ; give 
the definitions of several authors. 

What do you mean by a motive ? a high motive ? a low motive ? 
Explain the difference between causing choice and occasioning 
choice. Illustrate. 

What are the antecedents of rational choice ? consequents ? Il- 
lustrate. 

Show that self, as choice, originates motion ; dominates the 
body. Why are we able to apprehend infinite will f 

What is law? a law of nature? a human law? How are choice 
and law related ? 

Is the brute endowed with rational choice ? Are brutes moral 
beings ? Why 1 

What is fatalism 1 ? Give the line of argument. Give the con- 
clusion. 

What is liberty? Give the line of argument. Give the conclu- 
sion. What is an atheist ? a theist ? an agnostic ? 

Tell about the growth of choice. About what age is purposed 
action first clearly indicated? How early does the child deliberate ? 
At what age does choice become intentional action ? 

How is choice developed ? What do you mean by decision of 
character ? 

Letter. — You have a grand theme for your last psychological 
letter. Lead your friend to grasp fully the idea that he is endowed 
with the power of self-determination, that he is free and responsible. 
20 



284 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 



I. 
II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 



Topical Analysis of Chapter XXVIII. 

Position. 

1. Intellect. 



2. Emotion. 

Names. 

Fower of choice. 

Power of self-determination. 

Acts of Choice. 

Choice of Moses. 
Your choice. 

Office of Choice. 

Self-determination. 
Origination of motion. 

Characteristics of Choice. 

Uncaused cause. 
Mind in liberty. 

Definitions of Choice. 

Author's. Original. 



Choice. 



Power of preference. 



Choice of Solomon. 



Preference. 



Avoidability. 



Various definitions. 



Motives. 

Definitions. 



Low motives. High motives* 



Acts of Choice. 
Antecedents. 



Choosing. Consequents. 



Choice and Motion. 

Choice initiates motion. 



Choice dominates the body. 



Infinite choice moves the universe. 



Choice and Law. 

Law is choice. 
Human laws. 



Laws of nature. 
Moral laws. 



Choice and Sim 

Sin, intentional violation of law. 
Only rational beings can sin. 

Fatalism — Choice is caused. 

1. Sensations cause perception. 2. Emotions cause choosing. 
3. We can not avoid choosing. 4. Man is an automaton. 
5. There is no God. 



THE WILL-POWERS— GENERAL VIEW. 285 

XIII. Liberty— Choice is causa sui. 

1. Consciousness attests liberty. 2. Literature attests liberty. 
3. Law is based on liberty. 4. Liberty a necessary idea. 
5. Choice, uncaused cause. 6. There is a God. 

XIV. Growth of Choice. 

Reflex action and volition. Impulsive action. 
Determined action. 

XV. Education of Choice. 

Importance. Time. Method. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

THE WILL-POWERS — GENERAL VIEW. 

Will is Self- Willing. — Our will-powers are our capa- 
bilities of self-direction, self-determination, and self- 
action. Because will is mind in liberty, these are called 
the voluntary powers ; because determination leads on 
to action, these are called the active powers. 

r The Will- Powers. 

The Voluntary Powers. 
Names. — -\ The Powers of Self-Control. 

The Active Powers. 
1^ The Will. 

Intellect, Emotion, Will. — Step by step we have as- 
cended the psychological pyramid. At its summit we 
find the will-powers. Choice is the cap-stone. Our 
voluntary powers, we discover, are simple, as compared 
with our cognitive powers or our emotions. Of our 
mental energies, we find our emotions by far the most 
numerous, complex, and varied. Our intellectual facul- 



286 ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

ties are relatively few, yet exceedingly subtile in their 
interdependence and action. Our voluntary powers 
are yet more simple, and offer their chief difficulty in 
the problem of liberty. 

As possessed of intellect alone, we have represented 
man by one line ; as possessed of intellect and sensi- 
bility, we have represented him by two lines ; and we 
now represent him as possessed of intellect, sensibility, 
and will by three lines, united thus : 





> 


h- 




H- 


o 


J 


_1 


Ul 


_l 


m 


_l 


5 


to 


Ul 




z 


1- 




UJ 


z 




if) 





"Without intellect, there are no ideas, and therefore 
no emotions ; without emotion, there is no motive ; 
without motive, there is no choice ; without choice, 
there is no rational action.* 

CHOICE. 



WILL-POWERS. 



^'OA, 



Attention is the self-directing power of the mind ; 
volition is the self-acting power of the mind ; choice is 
the self-determining power of the mind. As attention, 
self concentrates his efforts ; as choice, self decides ; as 
action, self executes his decisions. 

Will is Self.—" We have now finished our study of the various 
factors of the self. It is now necessary very briefly to notice their 
relation to each other. The unity of the self is the will. The will 

* Dr. Mark Hopkins. 



THE WILL-POWERS— GENERAL VIEW. 287 

is the man, psychologically speaking. Knowledge we have seen to 
be in its essence a process of the realization of the universal self -con- 
sciousness ; feeling to be the accompaniment of self-realization ; and 
its specific quality to be dependent upon the definite form of self- 
realization accomplished. Will we have just seen to be the self re- 
alizing itself. This is involved throughout in physical and pruden- 
tial control, and it is explicitly developed when we study moral con- 
trol. Here the will is seen to be self-determination. The will, in 
short, constitutes the meaning of knowledge and of feeling; and 
moral will constitutes the meaning of will. 

" Moral will is the conscious realization by man that the real and 
the ideal ought to be one, and the resulting attempt to make them 
one in specific acts and in the formation of character. Religious 
will is conscious realization that they are one because man is a self- 
determining power. It is the realization that a perfect will is real- 
ity. It is the realization of freedom through the realization of the 
union of finite and the infinite Personality. It is only when we rec- 
ognize this latter activity of will that we are able really to compre- 
hend the previous forms of activity." * 

Will, the Court of Final Appeal.— Ideas fight. Emo- 
tions wage war. Appetites and passions clamor for 
gratification ; egoistic emotions contend for self ; love 
pleads for others ; conscience imperatively battles for 
right. Fiercer conflicts rage in the human soul than on 
fields of carnage. But self, as choice, is sovereign. 
Reason examines all the arguments and weighs all the 
motives. In view of all the considerations, self, as 
choice, decides. Happy he who chooses wisely ! 

* John Dewey, in " Psychology." 



INDEX. 



Abstraction, 156. 
Action, chapter xxvii, 266. 
Acts of action analyzed, 266. 
of sesthetical emotions analyzed, 

234. 
of altruistic emotion analyzed, 223, 

226. 
of appetite analyzed, 203, 209. 
of attention analyzed, 4. 
of choice analyzed, 274. 
of conception analyzed, 155. 
of conscience analyzed, 240. 
of consciousness analyzed, 72. 
of egoistic emotions analyzed, 216. 
of imagination analyzed, 134. 
of judgment analyzed, 171. 
of knowledge emotion, 231. 
of memory analyzed, 10S. 
of nournenal-perception analyzed, 

87. 
of phantasy analyzed, 125. 
of reason analyzed, 180. 
of sense-perception analyzed, 60. 
Esthetic emotions, 234. 
Affections, 222. 
Agnosticism, 96. 
Altruistic emotions, chapter xxi, 222, 

256. 
Analogy, 118. 
Analytic observation, 156. 
Antecedents of choice, 277. 
Antipathies, 227. 
Appetites, chapter xix, 208. 
Applied psychology, xv. 
Arguments, 184. 
Attention, chapters i and xxvi, 4, 

264. 
Attention and consciousness, 77, 

113. 
Attention and memory, 113. 



Author of law, 248. 
Author's preface, xvii. 
Avoidabihty, 275. 
Axioms, 156. 

Bad intentions, 246. 
Beauty-emotions, 234. 
Beauty, objective, 236. 
Belief and reason, 191. 
Benevolent emotions, 222. 
Body and soul, 52. 
Brain, 39. 

Capabilities, 56, 57, 262. 
Cause, 28, 95, 181. 
Cerebration, 44. 
Cerebrum, 42, 43. 
Certainty, 189, 190. 
Character^ 237. 
Characteristics of action, 267. 

of aesthetic emotions, 234. 

of altruistic emotions, 223. 

of an appetite, 209. 

of attention, 6. 

of choice, 275. 

of conception, 158. 

of conscience, 243. 

of egoistic emotions, 217. 

of imagination, 136. 

of instinct, 16. 

of judgment, 173. 

of memory, 110. 

ol nournenal-perception, 88. 

of phantasy, 126. 

of reason, 183. 

of sense-perception, 01 . 

of truth-emotions, 232. 
Choice, chapter xxvii, 273. 
Choice and law, 279. 
Classes of aesthetic emotions, 234. 



290 



INDEX. 



Classes of altruistic emotions, 224. 

of cosmic emotions, 280. 

of emotions, 216, 256. 

of feelings, 206. 

of self-emotions, 218. 

of percepts, 103. 
Classification, 157, 163. 
Comparative psychology, 50, G8, 79, 
121, 132, 143, 167, 177, 192, 220, 
282. 
Comparison, 156. 
Comprehension, 162. 
Conception, chapter xiv, 155, 16-1, 

166. 
Concepts, 159, 199. 
Conclusions, 185. 
Conscience, chapter xxiv, 210. 
Consciousness, chapter vii, 71. 
Conscious-percepts, 76. 
Contiguity, 118. 
Contrast, 117. 
Correlation, 118. 
Cosmic emotions, 230, 257. 
Culture and attention, 264. 

Deduction, 188. 
Definition, 163. 
Definition of action, 267. 

of appetite, 210. 

of altruistic emotion, 224. 

of aesthetic emotion, 235. 

of choice, 276. 

of conception, 158, 198. 

of conscience, 243. 

of consciousness, 102, 96. 

of egoistic emotions, 217. 

of imagination, 137, 148. 

of instinct, 17, 106. 

of judgment, 94, 198. 

of memory, 111, 144. 

of noumenal-perception, 102, 96. 

of phantasy, 127, 144. 

of reason, 183, 196. 

of sensation, 60. 

of sense-perception, 101, 62. 

of truth, 232. 
Denomination, 159. 
Desires, egoistic, 219. 
Determined action, 282. 
Disbelief, 189. 
Divine energies, 28. 
Doubt, 189. 
Dreams, 129. 
Duty emotions, 241. 

Editor's preface, vii. 

Education of aesthetic emotions, 238. 



Education of attention, 265, 10. 

of altruistic emotions, 226. 

of conception, 167. 

of conscience, 250. 

of conscious-perception, 78. 

of cosmic emotions, 250. 

of imagination, 142. 

of judgment, 177. 

of memory, 120. 

of noumenal-perception, 97. 

of phantasy, 132. 

of reason, 192. 

of sense-perception, 66. 

of senses, 51. 

of self-emotions, 220. 

of truth-emotions, 233. 
Egoistic emotions, chapter xx, 215, 

256. 
Elementary psychology, xiv. 
Elements of memory, 109. 

of conception, 156. 

of faith, 191. 

of judgment, 174. 
Emotion, intellect, will, 264. 
Emotional imagination, 140. 
Emotions, general view, 255. 

classed, 256, 216. 

defined, 255. 
Energies defined, 28. 
Enthymeme, 186. 
Ethical emotions, 240. 

imagination, 140. 

knowledge, 244, 248. 
Executive volition, 266. 
Experience and memories, 112. 

Faculties of the soul, 56, 57, 162. 
Failure— emotions, 228. 
Faith, 190. 
Fatalism, 279. 
Feelings, 57, 206, 255. 
Forgetting 119. 
Forms of tninking, 200. 

Ganglia, 36, 47. 
Generalization, 157. 
Genus, 162. 
Good intentions, 246. 
Gratification of appetites, 211. 
Growth of attention, 8. 

of conception, 167. 

of conscience, 249. 

of conscious-perception, 77'. 

of imagination, 142. 

of judgment, 177. 

of memory, 119. 

of noumenal-perception, 97. 



INDEX. 



291 



Growth of phantasy, 132. 

of reason, 191. 

of self-emotions, 220. 

of sense-perception, 66. 

of sympathy, 226. 

of truth-emotion, 233. 
Guides to appetite, 211. 

Habit, 271. 

Happiness, 211, 219, 251. 
Happy dreams, 132. 
Hates, 227. 
Heart, 215, 246. 
Hio-her emotions, 230. 
Humor, 237. 

Ideals, 133, 150. 
Imagination, chapter xii, 133. 

defined, 137, 148. 

and memory, 139. 

and phantasy, 142. 
Immediate self-emotions, 220. 
Imperatives of conscience, 242, 

243. 
Important terms, 25. 
Impulsive action, 267. 
Individual, 161. 
Induction, 1 K 7. 
Infallible, conscience, 247. 
Infinity, 95, 279. 
Insanity, 131. 

Instinct, chapter ii, 15, 206. 
Intellectual faculties, 57, 195, 196. 
Intellect and instinct, 19. 

emotion, will, 57, 264. 
Intemperance, 212. 
Intentions, 246. 
Introductory lessons, 4-44. 
Intuition, 100, 104, 247. 
Intuitive ethical ideas, 247. 

Judgment, chapter xv, 171, 177. 
Judgments, 176, 200. 

Kinds of action, 268, 281. 

of imagination, 140. 
Knowledge emotions, 231. 

Language, 270. 
Lawful gratification, 211. 
Law and choice, 279. 
Laws, 30. 

of conscience, 249. 

of memory, 114. 
Liberty, 2S0. 

Limits of imagination, 136. 
Literature, conscience, 245. 



Love, 225. 

Low motives, 277. 

Malevolent emotions, 222. 
Matter, 27, 94. 
Memory, chapter x, 108. 

and phantasy, 128. 
Memory-knowledge, 111. 
Mental phenomena, 26. 

laws, mental energies, 29, 30. 
Mesmerism, 131. 
Mind, 27, 33, 94. 
Misery, 212. 
Moral" guide, 245. 

law, 248. 
Motion and action, 45, 269. 

and choice, 278. 
Motives, 276, 277. 
Motorium, 45, 269. 

Natural appetites, 210. 
Necessary ideas, 86, 91. 

judgment, 177. 

realities, 90. 
Nerve-cells, 35. 
Nerve-currents, 38. 
Nerves, 36. 
Noumena, 26, 86. 
Noumenal-perception, chapter vii, 

85. 
Noumenal percepts, 89. 

Office of action, 267. 

of aesthetic emotion, 235. 

of altruistic emotion, 217. 

ot appetite, 209. 

of attention, 264, 265. 

of choice, 274. 

of conception, 157. 

of conscience, 241. 

of consciousness, 73. 

of egoistic emotion, 217. 

of imagination, 134. 

ot instinct, 15. 

of judgment, 72. 

of memory, 110. 

of noumenal-perception, 88. 

of phantasy, 125. 

of sense-perception, 61. 

of truth-emotions, 231. 
Origin of instincts, 21. 

Perceptive faculties, 100. 

knowing, 100. 

products, 103. 
Personal emotions, 216. 
Perverted appetites, 211. 



292 



INDEX. 



Phantasy, chapter xi, 124. 

and imagination, 141. 

in dreams, 129. 
Phenomena, 26. 
Philosophical imagination, 141. 
Philosophic emotions, 231. 
Physical feelings, 44, 60, 207. 

forces, 28, 30. 
Physiological psychology, 51, 201. 
Physiology of the emotions, 25s. 
Play of emotions, 227. 
Pleasure, 211. 

Powers of the mind, 56, 57, 262. 
Premises, 185. 
Private students, xix. 
Products of conception, 159, 199. 

of conscious-perception. 103, 76. 

of imagination, 138, 150. 

ot judgment, 175, 200. 

of memory, 111, 147. 

of noumenal-perception, 89, 103. 

of phantasy, 149. 

of reason, 184, 200. 

of sense-perception, 103, 63. 
Properties of concepts, 159. 

of judgments, 175. 
Prospective self-emotions, 219. 
Psychology defined, 32. 
Psychological pyramid, 106, 152, 204, 
252. 

tree, 56. 
Pyramid of energies, 28. 

Eational action, 269. 

emotions, 230. 
Eeason ; chapter xvi, 180. 
Eeasomng processes, 183, 187. 
Eeasons, 183, 184, 200. 
Eeflex action an instinct, 18. 

sensor-action, 45, 268, 281. 
Eemorse, 242, 251. 
Repres >ntative powers, 107, 10S-146. 
Eesemblance, 117. 
Retrospective emotions, 220, 225. 
Eight, 93. 

Science, 31. 
Self-betterment, 219. 
Self-consciousness, chapter vii, 71. 
Self-control, 212. 
Self-determination, 274. 
Self-emotions, 216. 
Sensation, chapter v, 44, 60 ; 207. 
Sense-perception, chapter vi, 59, 101. 
Sense-percepts, 63, 103. 
Sensibilities, 206. 
Sensorium, 35, 45, 207, 2G9. 



Sensor-lines, 48, 50. 
Sensor-organs, 38. 39. 
Somnambulism, 130. 
Soul-energies, 28. 

energies, outline, 56, 57, 262. 
Space, 27, 86, 92. 
Species, 161. 
Spiritual emotions, 230. 
Sub-consciousness, 80. 
Subject-lessons, xiii. 
Sublimity, 237. 
Success-emotions, 22S. 
Suggestion, laws of, 116. 
Suggestive Study-Hints : 

Action, 272. 

-Esthetic emotions, 238. 

Altruistic emotions, 229. 

Appetites, 213. 

Attention, 12. 

Choice, 283. 

Conception, 168. 

Consciousness, 83. 

Ethical emotions, 258. 

Imagination, 144. 

Instinct, 23. 

Judgment, 178. 

Memory. 121. 

Noumenal-perception, 98. 

Phantasy, 133. 

Eeason, 193. 

Self-cmotioos, 221. 

Sensation, 53, 207. 

Sense- perception, 68. 

Terms, 33. 

Truth-emotions, 233. 
Syllogisms, 184. 
Sympathies, 226. 

Teaching psychology, xx. 

Temperance, 212. 
I Terms of a judgment, 175. 

Tests of necessary ideas, 88. 
I The instincts, 20. 

Thinking, 153, 196, 201. 

Thought powers, 155-195. 
pyramid, 163. 
| Time, 87, 92. 

Topical analyses, 14, 24, 34, 54, 70, 
84, 99, 123, 133, 144, 150, 170, 
179, 194, 214, 240, 253, 273, 284. 

Training, 252. 

Tree of necessary ideas, 91. 

Truth-einotions, chapter xxii, 230. 

Ugliness, 236. 
Unbelief, 189. 
Uncaused cause, 281. 



INDEX. 



293 



Unconscious cerebration, 81. 
Unlawful gratification, 212. 

Verification, 189. 
Vision, 131. 
Volition, 264. 
Voluntary action, 281. 



Ways of studying mind, 2. 
Wild oats, 251. 
Will defined, 253, 285. 
Will, emotion, intellect, 264. 
Will-powers, 57, 203, 285. 
Wit, 237. 



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